M' 


STEAMSHIP  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 


]ly  kind  permission  ..'/  llw  ''  Siicn/i/ii   .-l  iiioican"  \ 

BLOWING    IP 

•  si>ei;i:d  vessel.  .SV//(Vvi 
of  tliis  peril  to  llic  North  Atlantii:  iiiai 


\l-rontispic 


BLOWING    IP    A    DKRKI.ICT 

11. )W  the  United  States'  special  vessel.  Snia-a.  shown  in  the  iMclure,  makes  short  work 


CONQUESTS    OF   SCIENCE 


STEAMSHIP  CONQUEST 
OF  THE  WORLD 


BY 

FREDERICK    A.    TALBOT 

author  of 
'railway  conquest  of  the  world,"  "moving  pictures,"  etc. 


[LLUSTRATED 


PHILADELPHIA 
J.    B.    LIPPINCOTT    COMPANY 
LONDON:  WILLL^M  HEINEiMANN 


"rinfcJ  in   England. 


■;>-m;  !.!;::tAPY 

UNiv:'i\::;v  or  caltforn 

SANTA  BARBARA 


PREFACE 

This  book  is  not  a  history  of  steam  navigation.  It  has 
been  written  ratiier  to  show  how  water  transportation  has 
developed  :  tlie  present  position  in  the  eternal  struggle 
between  science  and  disaster :  the  wonderful  and  rapid 
growth  of  the  big,  express  Liner  during  the  space  of  one 
hundred  years. 

I  have  not  confined  myself  to  the  steamship  itself  purely 
and  simply,  as  the  welfare  and  safety  of  the  ocean-travel- 
ling public  are  afifected  very  materially  by  several  other 
influences.  Although  the  North  Atlantic  figures  largely  in 
the  volume,  this  is  due  to  the  fact  that  it  is  the  busiest  of 
the  seven  seas  :  it  is  where  new  developments  and  revolu- 
tionary inventions  invariably  receive  their  ocean-going 
commercial  baptism  :  where  luxury  and  elegance  have  been 
carried  to  a  supreme  degree  :  where  the  ingenuity  and  skill 
of  the  engineer  are  revealed  most  strikingly  :  and  finally, 
because  it  is  the  arena  in  which  the  struggle  for  supremacy 
between  the  various  maritime  nations  is  contested  most 
keenly  and  enterprisingly. 

In  the  preparation  of  this  book  I  have  received  the 
heartiest  assistance  of  various  interests,  both  in  connection 
with  the  letterpress  and  the  illustrations.  In  the  majority 
of  cases  this  co-operation  is  acknowledged  in  the  text  and 
beneath  the  photographic  reproductions.  In  addition  I  am 
indebted  to  the  Hydrographers  of  the  British  and  United 
States  Admiralty  Departments,  the  editor  of  the  Scientific 
American,  and  also  the  commander  of  the  United  States 
derelict  destroyer  Seneca. 

The  volume  is  written  essentially  for  the  general  reader, 
who  is  not  familiar  with  the  technics  of  the  shipbuilding 


vi  PREFACE 

art ;  who  entertains  only  hazy  notions  concerning  the 
steamship,  its  design,  construction,  appointments,  and  the 
efforts  that  are  being  made  to  render  water  transportation 
absolutely  safe ;  and  who  has  no  idea  of  the  character  of 
its  influence  upon  the  world's  progress. 

Frederick  A.  Talbot. 

October  191 2. 


CONTENTS 


CHAP.  PACK 

I  THE   COMING    OF    THE    BIG    SHIP     .....  I 

II  THE    BIRTH    OF    A    STEAMSHIP           .....  17 

III  THE   CONSTRUCTION    OF   A    STEAMSHIP  ....  29 

IV  THE    PROPELLING    MACHINERY         .....  39 
V  THE    LAUNCH    AND   TRIAL   TRIP 57 

VI  THE    LUXURY   OF   THE    MODERN    LINER             ...  72 

VII  SAFETY   AT    SEA    ........  86 

VIII  THE    FLOATING    TOWN  .......  I08 

IX  MAMMOTH    FRESH-WATER    LINERS    AND    FREIGHTERS         .  II9 

X  ''the    blue    RIBBON    OF    THE    ATLANTIC"         .             .             .  I33 

XI  THE    STEAMSHIP    LANES    ACROSS    THE    OCEAN  .  -ISO 

XII  THE    PERIL   OF   THE    ICE          ......  162 

XIII  DANGERS   OF   THE    DEEP 1 74 

XIV  CLEARING    THE    OCEAN    HIGHWAYS             .             .             .             .  189 
XV  SHIPS   THAT    MAKE    FEW    PORTS      .....  203 

XVI  SALVAGE        .             .             .             .             .             .             .             .             .  214 

XVII  THE    STEAMSHIP    CONQUEST    OF    LITTLE-KNOWN    WATERS  232 

XVIII  FLOATING    DOCKS             .......  249 

vii 


CONTENTS 


Vlll 

CHAP.  PACK 

XIX       THE     SURVEYOR    OF    THE    SEA    AND     HIS    ADVENTUROUS 

CALLING.  ........       261 


XX  WIRELESS   TELEGRAPHY 

XXI  GRAVEYARDS    OF    THE    OCEAN 

XXII  STEAMSHIP   SURGERY     .... 

XXIII  STEAMLESS   SHIPS  .... 

XXIV  WHY    GERMANY    BUILDS    HER    OWN    LINERS 


276 
290 
302 
316 

327 


LIST  OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 

To/ace  fn^e 

Blowing  up  a  derelict Frontispiece 

The  first  steamship  to  eclipse  the  Great  Eastern  ....  2 

The  White   Star  "Nine-day  boat"  Baltic 3 

The  mammoth  German  intermediate  liner  George    Washington  3 

The  largest  ocean  greyhound  of  1912    ......  6 

Mother    and    daughter — the    tiny    Turbinia    lying    beside    the 

Matiretania       ..........  7 

Germany's      marine      giant — the      Hamburg-American      liner 

Imperator        .            .........  7 

Britain's  reply  to  Germany's  challeng*-         .....  12 

A  cradle  of  British  big  ships          .......  13 

The   testing  tank -24 

The  mammoth  liner's  backbone   .......  24 

Why  the  Mauretania  is  the  safest  ship  afloat     ....  25 

A  massive  casting           .........  32 

Sheathed  in  scaffolding -33 

The  stern  ribs  of  the  Olympic       .......  36 

The  Mauretania  ready  for  launching     ......  36 

An  ocean  monster  ashore       ........  37 

The  propelling  giant  of  a  record-breaker  of  the  'nineties    .         .  40 
The   Turbinia,  which  revolutionised  steamship   travel,   showing 

her  paces .         -41 

The  first  Atlantic  turbine  liner     .......  44 

An  historic  vessel 44 

A  narrow  escape 45 

Stern  of  the  first  Atlantic  turbine  liner          .....  45 

A  ship  which  carries  railway  trains       ......  48 

A  palatial  Pacifi.c  coastal  liner 48 

One  of  the  cylinders  of  the  Olympic     ......  49 

A  complete  ring  of  turbine  blades  for  the  Mauretania  ...  49 

The  triumph  of  the  Parsons  Turbine     ......  52 

The  price  of  power         .........  53 

rioating    200-ton    crane    leaning    over    vessel    and    picking    up 

engine  bed-plate       .........  53 

A  novel  automobile  tunnel     ........  54 

\n  avenue  of  boilers      .........  54 

After  cradle  of  the  Mauretania 55 

ix 


LIST  OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 


Titan  crane  lifting  a  boiler  on  board 

The  power  behind  the  Cunard  fliers 

A  thrilling  moment 

The  record  launch 

Afloat!     


To  J  ace  page 

55 


safety  when   in 


The  fastest  liner  in  the  world  at  full  speed  . 

A  novel  launch        ....... 

A  rejected  ocean  greyhound 

Luxury  in  the  Canadian  steamship  service  . 
The  drawing-room  of  the  Lusitania 
Modern  domestic  architecture  on  an  Atlantic  liner 
Architectural  beauty  on  an  Atlantic  liner 

A  regal  suite 

The  first-class  dining-saioon  of  the  Olympic 

The  first-class  lounge  of  the  Olympic   . 

The  first-class  smoke-room  of  the   Olympic 

The  imposing  entrance  and  door   to  the  smoking-room  o 

Deulschland      ...... 

A  seat  in  the  grand  entrance  on  the  boat  deck 

A  beautiful  French  tapestry  panel  in  the  first-class  lounge 

A  first-class  state-room  on  the  upper  deck  of  the  Mauretania 

The  first-class  smoke-room  of  the  Mauretania 

The  new  art  upon  a  German  liner 

The  water-tight  door — the  secret  of  a  vessel's 

peril 

A  combined  life-saving  deck  seat 

The  brain  of  the  ship 

The  simplest  and  quickest  boat-launching  gear 

The  value  of  the  quadrant  boat  davit    . 

The  submarine  bell  in  use     .... 

Two  types  of  the  submarine  bell  . 

The  electric  lighting  station  of  the  floating  city 

A  luxurious  flat  in  the  floating  city 

The  verandah  caf6  ..... 

A  restaurant  on  the  high  seas 

The  kitchen  of  a  floating  hotel 

The  pantry  of  a  floating  hotel 

Checking  the  mail-bags  .... 

The  floating  post  office  .... 

Stern    half    of    the    C.P.R.    lake    liner    Keewati 

through  the  lock      ..... 
The  two  halves  of  the  steamer  being  rejoined  in 
An  ore  freighter  in  the  "  Soo  "  locks     . 
'Ihe  Hamonic,  a  luxurious  fresh-water  liner 
The  observation-room  of  the  Hamonic 
The  dining-saioon  of  the  Hamonic 


f   the 


being    taken 


drv  dock 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 


XI 


for 


The  Servia,  the  first  Cunarder  built  of  steel 

Greyhounds  of  the  'eighties 

A  gigantic  yacht . 

The  Atlantic  record-breaker  of  the  'nineties 
The  Lucania,  a  famous  British  Atlantic  greyhound 
Germany's  first  bid  for  speed         .... 
Germany's  fastest  Atlantic  liner  .... 
The  liner  which  regained  the  Atlantic  speed  record 

Britain      ........ 

A  victim  of  the  iceberg  ...... 

The  terror  of  the  ocean        ..... 

Keeping  open  the  steamship  highways  in  the  Baltic  Sea 
An  ungainly  deck  load  .... 

What  winter  means  on  the  North  Atlantic 
When  greyhounds  collide  at  sea    . 
Trapped  in  the  fog  .... 

A  derelict,   almost  awash 

The    crew   of    the     United     States    derelict    destroyer 

boarding  the  Frederick  Roessner  . 
The  battered  hulk  of  a  derelict 
Rust,  barnacles,  seaweed  and  chaos     . 
The  Constance,  sunk  in  the  Tyne 
The  Vauxhall  at  high  tide     .... 

A  difficult  task 

A  double  disaster 

Temporary  erection  of  the  Sybil  on  the  Clyde 

Re-erecting  the  ship  at  Port  Florence  . 

Approaching  completion  for  launching 

Getting  a  boiler  on  board 

Shipbuilding  above  the  clouds 

A  motley  squad 

High  and  dry 

An  unusual  lift 

The  self-docking  floating  dock 

On  the  deck  of  the  self-docking  floating^  dock 

A  floating  dock  being  towed  across  the  North  Sea 

Vessel  raised  on  floating  dock 

Vessel  transferred  from  dock  to  gridiron 

Section  of  dock  itself  lifted  for  overhaul 

The  Marconi  wireless  operator  on  guard 

The  Marconi  aerial  of  the  Olympic 

Wireless  set  for  cargo  boats  . 

A  badly  "broken  nose" 

The  Mimi  after  being  aground 

An  unwelcome  visitor     . 

A  big  hole       .... 


To/ace  pa^c 
129 


Great 


XI I 


LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 


A  complete  smash  ...... 

An  ugly  gash 

An  unusual  spectacle 

The  salvaged  half  of  the  Milwaukee  in  dry  dock 
Joining  the  old  and  new  parts  of  the  Milwaukee 

The  restored  Milwaukee 

A  delicate  operation  in  steamship  surgery     . 
Fitting  the  new  bow  to  the  Ermack 

A  disastrous  collision 

The  crushed    bow   of   the   Florida  being   removed   bodily   after 

severance         ....... 

The  liner  with  her  new  bow  .... 

Is  this  the  future  type  of  ocean  greyhound? 

The    starting   platform    in    the   engine-room   of   the    motor-ship 

Selandia  ...... 

The  dining-saloon  of  the  Selandia 

The  engine-room  of  the  motor-ship  Selandia 

The  Electric  Arc     . 

Engine-room  of  the  Electric  Arc    . 

The  Toiler,  the  first  motor-driven  ship  to  cross  the  Atlantic 

The  growth  of  the  German  shipbuilding  industry 

The  pride  of  the  German  mercantile  marine 

A  glimpse  of  the  children's  room  ..... 

A  corner  of  the  library  ........ 

The  utility  of  the  floating  dock 


To  face  page 


304 

308 
308 

309 
312 

312 

313 
313 
318 

319 

319 
324 
32s 
325 
325 
328 

329 

332 
332 

333 


CHAPTER    I 

THE   COMING    OF   THE   BIG    SHIP 

If  it  were  possible  to  bring  back  to  life  those  early 
dreamers  of  steamship  conquest — Fitch,  Bell,  Fulton, 
Miller,  Watt  and  Brunei — to  give  them  a  glimpse  of  the 
Lusitania  tearing  along  at  thirty  miles  an  hour,  or  of 
the  Olympic  displacing  some  60,000  tons,  their  expressed 
opinions  would  prove  entertaining.  In  their  wildest 
dreams  they  never  anticipated  such  speedy  and  huge 
monsters  as  ride  the  waves  to-day.  While  probably  most 
of  these  hard-working  pioneers  would  desire  an  immediate 
return  to  their  resting-places,  one — Isambard  Brunei — 
doubtless  would  show  no  signs  of  perturbation  or  astonish- 
ment, as  he,  during  his  wonderful  career,  was  accustomed 
to  conceiving  and  doing  big  things  in  the  varied  fields  of 
engineering. 

From  the  days  of  1784,  when  poor  Henry  Fitch,  the 
American  engineer,  discussed  the  possibility  of  vessels 
being  propelled  by  steam,  and  was  considered  crazy  for 
his  pains,  to  the  present  time,  is  a  far  cry.  Yet  in  that 
comparatively  brief  period  of  less  than  150  years  much  has 
happened.  The  seven  seas  to-day  are  ridden  by  wonderful 
constructions  in  size,  power  and  luxury,  to  fulfil  every  pur- 
pose of  water  transportation.  And  developments  move  so 
quickly  in  marine  circles;  the  shipbuilder  is  a  man  of  such 
infinite  enterprise,  skill  and  ability,  that  nowadays  the 
public  ceases  to  wonder.  The  marvellous  of  to-day  be- 
comes the  commonplace  of  to-morrow. 

The  Comet,  which  created  such  widespread  consterna- 
tion and  wonder  as  she  ploughed  up  and  down  the  Clyde 
in    1 81 2,   could  be  stowed   upon   the   deck   of   the   marine 

B  I 


2  STEAMSHIP  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

monster  of  191 2,  and  escape  observation.  It  would  require 
nearly  two  and  a  half  vessels  of  the  size  designed  with  such 
infinite  labour  by  Henry  Bell,  to  reach,  laid  end  to  end, 
from  taffrail  to  taffrail  amidships  of  the  Olympic.  A  cen- 
tury of  marine  engineering  has  produced  vessels  900  feet 
in  length  by  90  feet  wide,  175  feet  in  height  from  keel 
to  rim  of  smokestack,  carrying  3,500  passengers,  and 
weighing  upwards  of  60,000  tons.  The  engines  of  the 
Comet  developed  four  horse-power  :  the  mistress  of  the 
ocean  of  a  century  later  requires  seventeen  thousand  times 
the  power  of  the  engines  fitted  to  the  pioneer  craft  to  main- 
tain her  speed  of  26  knots  per  hour. 

There  has  been  considerable  diversity  of  opinion  as  to 
whether  Bell  or  Fulton,  the  American  (though  of  Scottish 
birth),  was  the  inventor  of  the  steamboat.  The  Americans 
claim  the  honour,  seeing  that  Fulton's  first  steamer 
appeared  upon  the  Hudson  River  in  1807.  But  Fulton's 
admirers  ignore  the  fact  that  their  hero  got  his  ideas  from 
Bell,  and  even  followed  the  latter's  advice.  Bell  submitted 
his  scheme  for  steam  propulsion  to  the  British  Government, 
and,  as  was  to  be  expected,  met  with  a  rebuff  from  an 
administration  soddened  with  conservatism,  and  resolutely 
opposed  to  the  march  of  progress.  Lord  Nelson  recog- 
nised the  value  of  Bell's  invention,  and  did  not  omit  to 
convey  his  personal  opinion  to  the  Admiralty  that  "If 
you  do  not  adopt  Mr.  Bell's  scheme  other  nations  will 
do  so." 

So  it  proved,  because  the  inventor  at  once  communicated 
with  the  United  States  Government,  who  directed  Fulton 
to  get  into  touch  with  Bell.  Subsequently,  when  the  former 
was  dispatched  to  England  in  1804  upon  a  commercial 
mission,  he  called  upon  Bell,  and  the  subject  was  discussed 
further,  as  Fulton  was  impressed  with  the  possibilities  of 
his  fellow-countryman's  ideas.  That  the  interview  was 
fruitful  is  supported  by  the  fact  that  the  American  took 
Bell's  advice,  and  acquired  his  steam  engines  from  Boulton 
&.  Watt.  In  these  circumstances  it  is  difficult  to  transfer 
the  glory  of   invention   from   Bell   to   Fulton,   as  without 


^     o       > 


THE    WHITE    STAR    "NINE-DAY   BOAT"    BALTIC 

The  big  combined  freight  and  passenger  vessel,  although  slower,  but  luxuriously 
equipped,  has  become  highly  popular. 


gsWISwi^!>!^ju^^-'».y*|  ■  ^j^ 


THE    MAMMOTH    C.ERMAN    INTERMEDIATE    LINER    Cf-OKt;il    ll\lSl!l.\\;'rO.\ 

'J  he  Ciermans  were  not  slow  to  realise  the  advantages  of  the  mammoth  freighter,  of  which  this 
North  German  Lloyd  boat  is  the  finest  flying  the  Teuton  flag. 


THE   COMING    OF    THE    BIG    SHIP  3 

Bell's  assistance  Fulton  would  never  have  steamed  up  the 
Hudson  River  in  his  boat  130  feet  long. 

Some  six  years  after  the  Comet's  momentous  appearance 
the  Atlantic  was  crossed  for  the  first  time  by  a  vessel 
fitted  with  steam  engines.  This  was  the  Savannah, 
although  she  could  not  be  described  as  a  steamship  in  the 
present  meaning  of  the  word.  She  was  a  hybrid.  There 
was  such  little  faith  in  the  steam  engine  for  ocean  travel- 
ling that  the  captain  of  this  ship  hesitated  to  trust  himself 
exclusively  to  the  new  system  of  propulsion.  The  paddle- 
wheels  with  which  she  was  fitted  could  be  detached  and 
lifted  on  board  when  desired.  This  vessel  used  her  steam 
power  for  less  than  four  out  of  the  twenty-two  days 
occupied  in  crossing  from  New  York  to  Liverpool  in 
1818. 

The  first  steamship  built  for  trans-Atlantic  travel  was 
the  Great  Western,  designed  by  Brunei.  It  was  Samuel 
Cunard,  the  merchant,  however,  who,  while  in  Halifax, 
Nova  Scotia,  conceived  the  idea  of  meshing  the  seas  with 
steamship  routes  in  the  same  manner  as  the  land  was 
being  criss-crossed  by  railways,  and  to  run  with  a  similar 
scheduled  service  and  regularity.  When  the  Government 
called  for  tenders  to  establish  a  system  of  carrying  the 
mails  between  Britain  and  America  by  steamships,  instead 
of  the  ten-ton  "coffin  brigs,"  Cunard  came  to  England, 
to  meet  kindred  spirits  in  Mr.  George  Burns  and  David 
Maclver.  A  company  was  formed,  with  a  capital  of 
;{,'27o,ooo,  or  $1,350,000,  the  mail  contract  was  secured, 
and  the  first  regular  trans-Atlantic  steamship  service  was 
inaugurated  under  the  flag  of  what  is  known  now  as  the 
"Cunard  Line."  The  first  fleet  was  of  humble  pretensions, 
built  of  wood,  the  four  ships  each  measuring  207  feet  in 
length  by  34  feet  4  inches  wide,  and  24  feet  4  inches  deep, 
capable  of  carrying  115  cabin  passengers  with  225  tons 
of  cargo  at  a  speed  of  8J  knots — 9^  miles — per  hour, 
developed  by  engines  of  740  indicated  horse-power. 

In  the  course  of  a  few  years  wood  was  supplanted  by  iron 
for  the  hull,  despite  the  mournful  opposition  of  those  who 


4  STEAMSHIP  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

stated  confidently  that  iron  could  not  be  induced  to  float. 
At  the  same  time  the  dimensions,  displacement,  and  comfort 
of  the  passenger  accommodation  were  improved,  together 
with  the  power  and  speed  of  the  engines.  Each  succeeding 
vessel  embodied  some  important  modifications  as  compared 
with  its  predecessor,  as  the  shipbuilder  and  marine  engineer 
took  care  to  keep  pace  with  scientific  developments.  When 
the  first  Cunarder  appeared  upon  the  Atlantic  the  ship- 
owner was  in  advance  of  the  shipbuilder,  but  in  the  course 
of  a  very  few  years  the  latter  made  up  the  leeway,  out- 
stripped the  shipowner,  and  has  maintained  his  advantage 
ever  since. 

But  the  big  ship  came  in  the  late  'fifties,  when  Isambard 
K.  Brunei  conceived  his  great  masterpiece  and,  as  it  was 
termed,  his  most  colossal  failure,  the  Great  Eastern.  As 
it  proved,  she  was  about  thirty  years  ahead  of  her  times. 
This  vessel  was  a  wonderful  construction  built  on  the 
Thames,  with  a  length  of  659I-  feet,  a  beam  of  78  feet 
8  inches,  and  a  total  tonnage  of  18,915.  Everything"  in 
connection  with  her  eclipsed  anything  which  had  gone 
before;  she  was  a  novelty  from  stem  to  stern  and  from 
keel  to  funnel.  Her  creator  was  not  the  man  to  keep  to 
hidebound  traditions.  Pioneering  was  more  in  accord- 
ance with  his  nature,  knowledge  and  temperament.  The 
building  of  this  leviathan  was  watched  with  the  greatest 
interest  throughout  the  whole  of  these  islands,  Europe 
and  America.  It  was  fully  recognised  that  if  she 
were  successful  she  would  completely  revolutionise  ocean 
transportation. 

The  travelling  public  in  particular  anticipated  her  com- 
mission with  ill-disguised  pleasure.  In  those  days  a 
journey  across  the  Atlantic  was  not  to  be  undertaken 
lightly.  For  the  maximum  of  expense  one  also  endured 
the  maximum  of  discomfort  and  misery,  and  there  were 
very  few  voyaging  Mark  Tapleys  to  dispel  the  prevailing 
gloom.  But  with  the  Great  Eastern  everything  was 
changed.  The  public  saloons  were  large,  lofty  and 
spacious,   as  v.ell   as  being  most   comfortably  appointed. 


THE   COMING    OF    THE    BIG    SHIP  5 

The  private  cabins  were  designed  upon  the  same  liberal 
scale,  while  the  broad,  wide  decks  afforded  excellent  oppor- 
tunities for  indulgence  in  a  constitutional.  Then,  again, 
would  she  not  subjugate  the  terrors  of  mal-de-mer,  owing 
to  her  great  length  and  beam  ?  Seas  which  made  the 
average  liner  pitch,  toss  and  roll  in  the  most  disconcerting 
manner  would  be  unnoticed  by  this  titan  :  in  a  gale  she 
would  ride  the  waves  as  firmly  as  a  rock. 

The  vessel  was  fitted  with  both  systems  of  propulsion. 
The  paddle-wheel  had  proved  its  value  and  efficiency;  but 
the  screw  was  maintained  to  be  the  propelling  force  of  the 
future.  Inasmuch  as  there  was  a  rooted  antipathy  to  this 
form  of  propeller  at  the  time,  owing  to  its  principles  not 
being  recognised,  and  because  it  had  not  been  subjected 
to  sufficient  practical  trial,  the  designers  of  the  Great 
Eastern  adopted  both  systems.  On  the  trial  trip  the  paddle 
engines  developed  a  maximum  horse-power  of  2,800,  while 
the  screw  propeller  engines  gave  out  4,700  horse-power. 
On  this  occasion,  in  running  from  Portland  to  Holyhead, 
she  developed  a  speed  of  14^  miles  per  hour.  The  dual 
driving  system  demanded  the  continuous  stoking  of  112 
furnaces,  and  the  total  fuel  consumption  ranged  between 
250  and  400  tons  of  coal  per  24  hours.  With  her  raking 
masts,  on  which  could  be  spread  some  50,000  square  feet 
of  canvas,  and  her  five  smokestacks,  the  Great  Eastern 
certainly  looked  imposing,  especially  when  passing  the 
typical  liner  of  those  days. 

This  vessel,  which,  it  was  claimed  popularly,  would 
"flog  the  seas,"  and  which  tempted  imaginative  writers  to 
indulge  in  fantastic  comparisons  with  popular  objects  to 
emphasise  her  monster  proportions,  proved  a  lamentable 
failure  as  a  liner.  Her  career  was  melancholy.  Money 
was  difficult  to  secure  for  defraying  the  cost  of  construc- 
tion, and  accordingly  she  was  built  in  a  hand-to-mouth 
manner,  which  was  responsible  for  her  long  occupation  of 
the  building  berth.  By  the  time  she  was  ready  for  her 
trial  trip  over  ;^7oo,ooo,  or  $3,500,000,  had  been  sunk  in 
her.    A  chain  of  mishaps  attended  her  appearance.    During 


6  STEAMSHIP  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

the  launch  she  stuck  on  the  ways,  and  defied  removal  for 
several  weeks.  While  proceeding  round  the  coast  a  boiler 
explosion  occurred  off  Hastings,  whereby  seven  men  were 
killed  and  several  were  injured,  and  off  the  Eddystone  she 
narrowly  escaped  collision  with  a  brig  which  carried  no 
lights,  because  the  master  of  the  latter  considered  them  a 
luxury  until  he  ran  into  danger. 

In  order  to  ascertain  the  possibilities  of  the  vessel  for 
her  designed  service  between  Great  Britain  and  Australia, 
she  was  dispatched  on  a  trial  trip  to  the  United  States, 
and  occupied  eleven  days  on  the  journey.  But  she  could 
not  earn  sufficient  money  on  the  Atlantic  to  defray  her 
maintenance  expenses  and  repairs,  although  she  was 
engaged  in  troopship  service,  so  that  she  never  ventured  to 
the  Antipodes.  From  the  passenger  service  she  drifted  into 
cable-laying  operations,  and  her  most  historic  journey  was 
that  associated  with  the  completion  of  the  Atlantic  cable. 
Then  she  degenerated  into  a  coal  hulk  at  Gibraltar.  She 
was  sold  in  London  in  1884  for  a  mere  ;^26,20o,  or 
$131,000.  For  a  time  she  served  as  a  show-ship,  and 
then  ended  her  career  as  an  advertising  hoarding,  after 
which  she  was  broken  up,  and  was  sold  under  the  hammer 
as  junk  for  ;^58,ooo,  or  $290,000.  Such  is  the  doleful 
history  of  the  first  monster  steamship. 

The  Great  Eastern  practically  sealed  the  fate  of  the 
paddle-wheel  propelling  system  so  far  as  oceanic  travel 
was  concerned.  The  Inman  Line  built  screw-driven 
ships,  and  other  companies  followed  their  example.  The 
Great  Eastern  served  another  purpose  :  she  became  the 
unit  of  comparison  when  describing  succeeding  shipbuild- 
ing marvels.  Thus  we  read,  in  the  praises  sung  of  a  new 
vessel,  that  "she  is  the  largest  vessel  yet  built,  with  the 
exception  of  the  Great  Eastern."  This  was  a  stock  phrase 
among  writers  until  1899,  when  the  second  Oceanic 
appeared.  This  was  the  first  liner  to  eclipse  the  Great 
Eastern,  and  from  that  day  to  this  it  has  been  the  practice 
to  relate  by  how  much  a  new  monster  exceeds  Brunei's 
famous  masterpiece. 


THE   COMING    OF    THE    BIG    SHIP  7 

The  appearance  of  the  White  Star  Line  vessels  as  com- 
petitors for  the  Atlantic  traffic  opened  up  a  new  era  in 
the  story  of  the  Steamship  Conquest  of  the  World.  This 
company  was  not  a  new  one,  but  was  in  reality  the  develop- 
ment of  a  sailing  line  whose  clippers  had  achieved  a 
world-wide  reputation  in  the  Australian  trade.  During  the 
seven  years'  gold  fever  in  Australia  the  ships  under  this 
flag  drove  a  thriving  business,  and  carried  about  half  a 
million  adventurers  to  the  diggings.  In  1867  the  fleet  was 
acquired  by  Mr.  Thomas  Henry  Ismay,  who  at  once  turned 
his  attention  to  the  developing  traffic  upon  the  Atlantic. 
Mr.  Ismay  knew  something  about  this  trade,  as  he  had 
been  a  director  of  the  National  Line,  whose  vessels  for  some 
time  held  the  blue  ribbon  of  the  Atlantic.  He  recognised  a 
particular  field  which  awaited  development,  and  he  seized 
it.  He  secured  the  co-operation  of  an  old-time  colleague  in 
Mr.  Imrie — the  two  had  served  their  apprenticeships  in 
the  same  firm  simultaneously — and  was  also  joined  by 
Mr.  Fletcher,  the  firm  becoming  known  as  Ismay,  Imrie 
&  Company. 

They  decided  to  refrain  from  participating  in  the  speed 
mania,  though  now  and  again  they  gave  their  competitors, 
to  whom  this  factor  was  the  all-governing  consideration, 
some  awkward  frights  by  building  vessels  which  not  only 
fulfilled  the  basic  requirements  of  their  owners,  but  were 
fleet  as  well.  They  set  out  to  provide  the  traveller  with 
every  luxury,  convenience  and  comfort.  The  arrival  of  the 
first  boat  of  the  new  fleet,  the  Oceanic,  created  as  much 
enthusiasm  upon  her  arrival  in  New  York  in  1871  as  had 
the  Cunard  pioneer  Britannia  half  a  century  previously. 
She  was  a  magnificent  craft,  excelling  anything  that  had 
been  seen  up  to  this  time.  Her  graceful  lines  gave  her 
the  appearance  of  a  millionaire's  yacht  rather  than  that  of 
a  vessel  engaged  in  the  prosaic  freight  and  passenger 
carrying  trade.  She  had  a  brilliant  career,  and  sailed  at 
one  time  or  another  over  the  seven  seas.  In  one  of  these 
voyages  she  beat  the  Pacific  record  with  i  hour  56  minutes 
less  than  14  days.     She  reduced  the  time  occupied  in  the 


8  STEAMSHIP  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

circumnavigation  of  the  globe  from  the  80  days  required 
by  Jules  Verne  in  his  fascinating  story,  to  75  days.  She 
ploughed  to  and  fro  over  the  Pacific  until  1895,  when  she 
returned  home  to  undergo  an  extensive  overhaul.  But  her 
life  as  a  greyhound  was  over.  She  had  been  surpassed 
in  every  respect  by  later  vessels,  so  she  was  sold  for  ;^8ooo, 
or  $40,000,  and  made  her  last  trip  from  Belfast  in  1896  to 
the  shipbreaker's  yard,  to  be  reduced  to  scrap,  after  battling 
with  the  seas  for  a  quarter  of  a  century. 

The  appearance  of  the  White  Star  Line  created  another 
precedent.  Hitherto  the  Clyde  and  the  Tyne  had  reigned 
supreme  as  the  cradles  for  ocean  ferries,  but  the  new 
steamship  company  went  to  Ireland  for  its  products. 
Messrs.  Harland  Sc  Wolff,  the  largest  shipbuilding  firm  in 
the  world  to-day,  established  their  works  in  the  Emerald 
Isle,  having  received  the  cold  shoulder  from  Liverpool, 
and  they  formed  an  indissoluble  compact  with  the  White 
Star  Line.  Indeed,  the  two  firms  are  so  closely  allied 
to-day  that  it  is  difficult  to  say  where  the  one  ends  and 
the  other  begins.  The  builders  have  always  been  given  a 
free  hand  to  produce  the  "best  possible,"  and  have  never 
been  trammelled  by  contract  prices.  Under  this  policy 
there  is  no  tendency  to  scamp  the  work  in  order  to  make 
ends  meet;  the  builders,  upon  the  completion  of  a  ship, 
merely  produce  the  account  for  the  prime  cost  thereof  to 
the  owners,  and  then  add  a  certain  percentage  upon  the 
outlay  to  represent  their  profit.  This  system  is  becoming 
more  widely  adopted  in  Europe  to-day,  as  it  is  conducive 
to  obtaining  the  best  and  soundest  materials  and  work- 
manship, as  well  as  to  securing  the  embodiment  of  the 
very  latest  developments,  as  they  are  perfected  during  the 
construction  of  the  vessel,  so  far  as  it  does  not  interfere 
with  its  fundamental  calculations.  This  is  the  sole  reason 
why  the  White  Star  Line  has  been  able  to  earn  the  dis- 
tinction of  having  the  most  luxurious  and  comfortable 
vessels  afloat.  They  may  be  slower  as  compared  with  the 
flyers  of  other  lines,  but  there  is  a  very  large  section  of 
the    travelling    public    which    appreciates    what    may    be 


THE   COMING    OF   THE    BIG    SHIP  9 

described  as  an  easy  speed,  provided  that  every  luxury. is 
available. 

The  turning-point  in  the  history  of  the  White  Star  Line 
may  be  said  to  have  commenced  from  the  commissioning 
of  those  two  magnificent  passenger  yachts  the  Majestic 
and  Teutonic.  They  became  the  pride  of  the  Atlantic,  not 
only  from  the  point  of  view  of  comfort,  but  also  for  their 
consistent  running.  From  end  to  end  they  measure  582 
feet  in  length,  have  a  width  of  57J  feet,  with  a  moulded 
depth  of  42  feet,  displace  17,800  tons,  with  a  draught  of 
29  feet  4!^  inches,  while  the  two  sets  of  triple  expansion 
engines,  developing  17,000  indicated  horse-power,  give 
them  a  speed  of  19I  knots.  In  these  ships  the  masts, 
which  hitherto  had  been  carried  so  that  sails  might  be 
spread  to  steady  the  boat  in  bad  weather,  were  abandoned 
in  favour  of  short  masts  forming  flag-poles,  while  the  two 
funnels  were  spaced  apart  so  far  as  to  enable  the  first-class 
dining  saloon  to  be  set  between  them,  to  form  a  long,  open 
apartment  extending  the  full  width  of  the  ship.  These 
vessels  were  built  in  accordance  with  the  Admiralty  require- 
ments for  conversion  into  armed  cruisers,  for  which  provi- 
sion a  further  subsidy  was  earned  from  the  Government; 
and  at  the  Spithead  review  (1889)  the  Teutonic  appeared 
in  this  guise,  being  the  first  Atlantic  liner  to  be  seen 
converted  and  armed  as  a  cruiser.  The  German  Emperor 
was  among  the  celebrated  visitors  to  honour  her  with  an 
inspection,  and  he  was  so  fascinated  with  what  he  saw  that 
he  had  to  abandon  his  visit  to  five  British  war  vessels, 
owing  to  the  time  spent  upon  the  Teutonic.  The  applica- 
bility of  an  Atlantic  liner  to  naval  purposes  did  not  fail  to 
impress  him,  and  as  a  result  the  German  nation  followed 
the  same  practice  in  connection  with  the  vessels  laid 
down  shortly  afterwards  for  the  North  German  Lloyd  and 
Hamburg-American  Lines. 

These  two  White  Star  boats  succeeded  in  reducing  the 
trans-Atlantic  passage,  as  related  elsewhere,  and  keen 
rivalry  developed  between  these  sister  ships  and  the  twin 
craft  of  the  Inman  Line,  the  City  of  New  York  and  City 


lo    STEAMSHIP    CONQUEST    OF    THE    WORLD 

of  Paris.  The  practice  of  carrying  twin  screws,  which  had 
been  introduced  by  the  latter  line,  was  followed  in  the  case 
of  the  White  Star  vessels,  upon  the  emphatic  recommenda- 
tion of  Sir  William  White. 

In  1897  the  famous  North  German  Lloyd  steamer, 
Kaiser  Wilhelm  der  Grosse,  appeared,  and  created  a  flutter 
of  excitement  by  her  high  speed.  With  her  649  feet  of 
length,  the  Great  Eastern  was  in  danger  of  becoming 
eclipsed.  This  vessel  revealed  the  ability  of  the  German 
shipbuilders  to  turn  out  boats  equal  in  every  respect  to 
the  products  of  the  British  yards.  The  luxurious  schemes 
of  decoration  inagurated  by  the  White  Star  and  Cunard 
Lines  were  followed.  The  vessels  are  distinguishable  by 
their  four  large  funnels,  although  their  rake  and  disposi- 
tion does  not  render  them  so  picturesque  externally  as  the 
three-funnelled  city  vessels  of  the  Inman  Line.  The 
success  of  this  boat  prompted  her  owners  to  lay  down 
a  sister  ship,  the  Kronprinz  Wilhelm,  of  21,300  tons 
displacement. 

Meantime  the  White  Star  Line  had  not  been  idle.  It 
had  secured  a  certain  position  upon  the  Atlantic,  and 
resolved  to  maintain  it.  The  Oceanic  was  its  reply  to 
the  German  move.  Although  this  liner  was  not  so  fleet 
as  the  Kaiser  Wilhelm  der  Grosse,  it  created  just  as  great 
a  sensation,  as  for  the  first  time  the  Great  Eastern  was 
exceeded  in  length.  The  Oceanic  is  705^  feet  long  by 
68  feet  beam,  and  49J  feet  moulded  depth,  displacing 
18,300  tons  when  light.  She  is  fitted  w^ith  two  sets  of 
triple  expansion  engines  giving  an  aggregate  of  28,000 
indicated  horse-power,  which  is  sufficient  to  secure  a  steady 
speed  of  2o|  knots  per  hour. 

Some  little  disappointment  was  manifested  in  certain 
British  circles  because  the  White  Star  Line  had  not  replied 
to  the  German  speed  challenge,  but  their  new^  acquisition 
was  regarded  essentially  as  a  revenue-earning  craft,  capable 
of  carrying  not  only  1,500  passengers  of  all  classes,  but  a 
large  volume  of  cargo  in  addition.  So  far  as  the  general 
lines  are  concerned  she  follows  those  of  the  Majestic  and 


THE   COMING    OF    THE    BIG    SHIP  ii 

the  Teutonic,  though  upon  a  more  liberal  scale.  This  boat 
achieved  instant  popularity  on  her  maiden  trip,  owing  to 
her  steady  running,  comfort  and  behaviour  in  rough 
weather.  Another  point  which  did  not  escape  the  vigilance 
of  the  critical  travelling  public  was  her  maintenance  of 
speed  under  all  and  varying  conditions.  It  is  very  seldom 
that  the  Oceanic  is  forced  to  ease  up  owing  to  heavy 
weather.  In  a  way  she  was  an  experiment.  Her  cost  was 
heavy  in  proportion  to  that  of  contemporary  vessels,  and 
she  has  never  been  duplicated,  so  that  she  ranks  as  a  unique 
model  of  a  trans-Atlantic  liner. 

The  White  Star  inaugurated  another  type  of  vessel,  which 
since  has  been  copied  by  all  the  leading  companies,  with 
the  exception  of  the  Cunard  Line.  This  is  the  heavy 
intermediate  boat,  represented  by  the  Celtic,  Cedric, 
Adriatic  and  Baltic.  The  first  two  named  are  sister  ships. 
The  length  is  68o|  feet,  beam  75  feet,  moulded  depth 
44  feet  I  inch,  and  each  is  of  20,904  tons.  Their  engines 
develop  less  than  one-half  the  energy  of  those  of  the 
Oceanic,  being  only  of  12,600  indicated  horse-power,  giving 
a  speed  of  17  knots  per  hour.  They  are  practically  nine- 
day  boats,  and  although  in  comparison  they  appear  to 
represent  a  retrograde  step,  their  success  proves  that  inter- 
mediate speed  is  by  no  means  a  disadvantage.  In  fact,  it 
was  the  success  of  these  two  boats  which  prompted  the 
company  to  produce  the  Baltic  in  1904  and  the  Adriatic 
in  1907.  Both  these  vessels  exceed  the  Oceanic  in  every- 
thing but  horse-power  and  speed.  The  Baltic  has  a  length 
of  708  feet  5  inches,  with  a  beam  of  75  feet  4  inches,  and 
is  of  the  same  moulded  depth  as  the  Celtic.  The  Adriatic, 
built  three  years  later  (1907),  is  10  inches  longer  than  the 
Baltic,  2  inches  wider  beam,  8  feet  7  inches  greater 
moulded  depth,  and  of  24,541  gross  tons,  as  compared  with 
the  23,876  gross  tons  of  the  Baltic.  While  the  latter  is 
driven  by  engines  developing  14,000  indicated  horse- 
power, capable  of  yielding  i6|  knots,  the  former  is  of 
16,000  indicated  horse-power,  the  excess  being  able  to 
produce  another  J  knot  per  hour. 


12    STEAMSHIP    CONQUEST    OF    THE    WORLD 

Although  travellers  were  deprived  of  speed  in  these 
four  vessels,  they  were  recompensed  by  enhanced  luxury 
and  comfort  in  regard  to  the  internal  appointments.  Coin- 
ciding with  this  development  in  trans-Atlantic  travel  the 
White  Star  Line  improved  its  Australian  and  other  ser- 
vices, by  providing  these  routes  with  vessels  of  the  Atlantic 
type  in  point  of  luxury  and  cuisine,  ranging  from  ii,ooo 
tons  upwards,  and  with  a  speed  of  about  13  knots,  all 
fitted  with  twin  screws.  This  line  has  never  neglected  the 
Australasian  traffic,  which  is  highly  remunerative,  especially 
in  point  of  freight. 

The  German  companies  did  not  rest  on  their  laurels. 
They  realised  that  the  big  ship  is  the  greatest  commercial 
success,  a  point  which  Brunei  had  advanced  when  design- 
ing his  famous  vessel.  The  North  German  Lloyd  replied 
to  the  Oceanic  with  the  Kaiser  Wilhelm  II,  which  sur- 
passed the  former  by  21  feet  in  length,  while  her  displace- 
ment, when  loaded  fully,  is  26,000  tons,  or  2000  tons  less 
than  the  White  Star  record-breaker.  In  this  instance, 
however,  speed  was  the  primary  consideration,  in  con- 
junction with  passenger  and  cargo  carrying  capacity. 
Then  came  the  Kronprinsessin  Cecile  in  1907,  with  her 
length  of  706J  feet  and  displacement  of  27,000  tons— still 
less  than  the  Oceanic — but  with  speed  as  pronounced  as 
ever.  The  German  nation,  however,  now  became  out- 
classed hopelessly  by  British  engineering  skill — the  British 
engineer  can  always  come  out  on  top  when  encouraged, 
both  in  the  mercantile  marine  and  in  naval  engineering — 
by  the  launching  of  the  Lusitania  and  the  Mauretania. 
Germany,  in  matters  concerning  shipbuilding  for  the  mer- 
cantile marine,  is  sadly  handicapped.  Never  has  the 
Teuton  displayed  his  talent  as  a  first-class  copyist  or  dupli- 
cator, rather  than  an  initiator,  so  completely  as  in  ship- 
building. The  five  speedy  liners  flying  the  flags  of  the 
North  German  Lloyd  and  the  Hamburg-American  Lines 
are  to  all  intents  and  purposes  sister  ships.  They  are 
all  of  the  same  type  in  regard  to  their  broad  outlines,  and 
confusion  is  very  easy  when  the  distinctive  flags  of  the 


z    — 


X      o 

S     2 


^.  o 

S  8 


X     3  a. 


--^',. 


THE   COMING    OF    THE    BIG    SHIP  13 

respective  companies  are  not  shown.  The  latest  products 
of  the  German  shipbuilder  are  the  results  of  what  they 
learned  years  ago  in  the  British  yards,  when  the  native 
marine  engineer  considered  that  the  height  of  his  ambition 
was  fulfilled  by  apprenticeship  on  the  Tyne,  Clyde  or  at 
Belfast.  The  British  engineer,  on  the  contrary,  is  always 
on  the  look-out  for  an  opportunity  to  put  forth  another 
effort  upon  different  lines.  So  long  as  initiative  and  enter- 
prise are  displayed  by  the  British  marine  engineers,  and  so 
long  as  they  can  command  the  confidence  of  shipowners, 
they  have  nothing  to  fear  from  German,  French  or  any 
other  nation's  competition  in  regard  to  this  industry. 

The  attempt  made  by  the  United  States  to  figure  in  the 
big-ship  movement  must  not  be  overlooked.  Through  the 
enterprise  of  Mr.  James  J.  Hill,  the  well-known  Canadian 
railway-builder,  two  mammoth  passenger-freighters,  Min- 
nesota and  Dakota,  were  built.  In  length  they  did  not 
eclipse  the  Great  Eastern,  being  only  630  feet  from  end  to 
end,  with  a  beam  of  73^  feet.  A  shipbuilding  company 
was  created  specially  for  their  construction,  and  though 
they  represented  magnificent  specimens  of  naval  architec- 
ture, they  have  been  almost  as  huge  a  failure  as  was 
Brunei's  unfortunate  effort.  The  Dakota  came  to  an 
untimely  end  off  Japan.  Had  these  two  boats  been  com- 
missioned for  service  on  the  Atlantic  they  might  possibly 
have  paid,  but  on  the  Pacific  they  were  pitted  against  the 
Japanese,  who  are  sweeping  American  shipping  from  those 
seas,  as  they  are  able  to  operate  their  craft  at  a  much  lower 
charge.  This  is  an  anomalous  position  of  affairs,  consider- 
ing the  prosperity  of  American  shipbuilding  upon  the 
Great  Lakes,  and  seems  almost  inexplicable.  The  raw 
material  in  the  United  States  costs  less,  greater  advantage 
is  taken  of  time  and  labour  saving  machinery,  yet  the 
country,  when  ranged  against  European  construction,  and 
more  particularly  British  yards,  is  completely  outclassed. 
The  item  of  wages  rules  United  States  competition  out  of 
court.  When  Canada  sanctions  the  cutting  of  the  Georgian 
Bay  Canal,  enabling  larger  ocean  carriers  to  pass  from  the 


14    STEAMSHIP    CONQUEST    OF    THE    WORLD 

St.  Lawrence  to  the  Great  Lakes,  the  knell  of  United  States 
shipbuilding  on  those  waters  will  be  sounded.  At  the 
present  moment  they  have  a  far  better  protection  against 
invasion  than  the  most  formidable  tariff  walls  could  afford. 
British  shipbuilders  cannot  compete  in  this  market  for  the 
simple  reason  that  they  cannot  build  vessels  exceeding  a 
certain  tonnage,  as  the  connecting  Canal  will  not  permit 
them  to  pass.  The  American  shipbuilder  at  present  has 
lost  the  trade  in  the  small  craft,  because  the  Clyde  and  the 
north-east  coast  are  able  to  undercut  him ;  and  directly 
British  shipbuilders  secure  an  entry  into  the  Great  Lakes, 
such  as  the  projected  new  waterway  will  offer,  they  will 
secure  the  lion's  share  of  the  trade  in  the  building  of  the 
10,000  and  15,000  ton  freighters. 

When  the  Cunard  flyers  appeared,  this  country  set  the 
big-ship  movement  upon  a  fresh  footing.  The  displace- 
ment of  the  Adriatic  was  almost  doubled,  these  two  huge 
boats  being  of  45,000  tons  on  the  load  draught.  They 
were  eighty  feet  longer,  measuring  790  feet  from  end  to 
end,  with  a  beam  of  88  feet,  and  a  depth  to  the  boat  deck 
of  80  feet.  From  the  keel  to  the  top  of  the  funnel  is  a 
matter  of  155  feet.  Placed  end  to  end,  and  moored  beneath 
the  Brooklyn  Bridge,  the  thoroughfare  of  the  East  River 
would  be  completely  closed.  These  vessels  in  their  design 
reverted  to  the  big  yacht  in  appearance,  with  the  four 
funnels  spaced  equidistantly,  instead  of  in  pairs,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  German  vessels. 

In  point  of  size  the  Cunard  liners  have  been  rivalled  by 
the  White  Star  liner  Olympic.  This  ship  has  brought  the 
"  looo-foot-liner,"  which  has  been  heralded  for  years, 
within  measurable  distance  of  fulfilment.  The  Olympic 
has  a  total  length  of  882J  feet,  with  an  over-all  breadth  of 
94  feet  upon  the  boat  deck,  and  when  fully  loaded  displaces 
62,000  tons.  The  captain's  bridge  is  100  feet  above  the 
bottom  of  the  keel,  while  the  over-all  height  from  the  keel 
to  the  top  of  the  funnels  is  175  feet.  The  vessel  is  able  to 
carry  no  less  than  3,346  passengers  and  crew,  and  in  her 
capacious  holds  can  stow  about  6000  tons  of  cargo. 


THE   COMING    OF   THE    BIG    SHIP  15 

While  the  Olympic  was  being  completed  the  Germans 
awoke,  and  forthwith  prepared  their  plans  to  respond  to 
the  British  challenge.  The  Hamburg-American  Line  com- 
pleted arrangements  with  Harland  &  Wolff  for  a  huge  boat, 
but  the  contract  was  cancelled  after  the  necessary  draw- 
ings were  completed.  When  the  shipping  prosperity  gave 
signs  of  returning  the  project  was  revived,  but  it  was 
decided  to  build  the  boat,  of  British  design,  in  a  German 
instead  of  in  the  Irish  yard — a  somewhat  curious  circum- 
stance. The  Imperator  measures  900  feet  in  length,  has  a 
beam  of  96  feet,  displaces  65,000  tons,  carries  4,100  passen- 
gers, and  requires  a  crew  of  1,100,  men  and  women  to 
handle  her.  The  British  shipbuilding  industry  was  some- 
what chagrined  at  missing  this  contract,  after  having  pre- 
pared the  requisite  plans,  but  since  these  were  formulated 
shipbuilding  science  has  made  great  strides  in  various 
directions.  The  Imperator  will  not  hold  the  record  for 
long,  as  she  is  being  matched  by  the  new  White  Star  liner 
on  the  stocks,  and  which  represents  a  very  marked  advance 
upon  the  German  competitor,  in  length,  displacement  and 
every  other  respect.  Even  before  this  boat  takes  to  the 
water  the  German  rival  will  be  out-paced,  as  the  Cunard 
Line  instantly  retorted  to  the  Teuton  move  with  the 
Aquitania,  which  will  create  just  as  great  a  sensation  as 
did  the  arrival  of  the  two  famous  craft  flying  the  flag  of 
this  line. 

Where  will  it  all  end?  The  shipbuilder  of  to-day  is  far 
in  advance  of  the  shipowner.  Lord  Inverclyde,  in  a  jesting 
speech,  inquired  if  shipowners  never  were  to  have  peace, 
as  builders  and  marine  engineers  were  always  springing 
surprises  upon  them  in  the  matter  of  improvements,  and 
compelling  owners  to  go  in  for  larger,  faster  and  more 
costly  vessels.  Seventy  years  ago  the  shipowner  held  the 
reins  and  drove  the  builder.  To-day  the  position  is  re- 
versed, and  the  builder  is  in  the  dictatorial  position.  The 
guiding  hand  of  the  Cunard  Line  has  stated  that  the  future 
of  the  Atlantic  traffic  rests  with  the  50,000-tonner.  Lord 
Pirrie    anticipates    the    arrival    of    the    looo-foot    boat    of 


i6    STEAMSHIP    CONQUEST   OF    THE    WORLD 

100,000  tons.  This  latter  ambition  on  the  part  of  the 
builder  is  curbed  only  by  one  stumbling-block — lack  of 
harbour  accommodation.  But  the  authorities  of  the  ports 
are  accepting  the  inevitable,  and  making  adequate  pro- 
vision for  the  future.  During  the  past  thirteen  years  the 
growth  of  the  big  ship  has  been  amazing.  In  this  short 
span  of  time  the  liner  has  trebled  in  tonnage,  the  length 
has  been  increased  about  40  per  cent.,  the  horse-power  has 
risen  from  28,000  to  70,000,  and  speed  has  advanced  from 
23J  knots  to  26  knots  per  hour.  If  the  pace  is  maintained, 
the  close  of  the  first  quarter  of  the  twentieth  century  will 
see  the  realisation  of  Lord  Pirrie's  dream. 


CHAPTER    II 

THE   BIRTH    OF   A    STEAMSHIP 

Although  the  handiwork  of  the  engineer  always  com- 
pels attention,  the  expression  of  his  skill  which  probably 
arouses  the  deepest  admiration  is  the  steamship,  especially 
when  it  is  a  huge  and  speedy  liner.  The  sight  of  a 
structure  of  steel,  measuring  several  hundred  feet  in  length, 
weighing  tens  of  thousands  of  tons,  ploughing  through  the 
water  20,  25  or  30  miles  an  hour  never  fails  to  stir  the  most 
indifferent  soul. 

Often  have  I  heard  wonder  expressed  as  to  how  the 
builder  of  ships  creates  his  handiwork.  How  does  he 
decide  the  length,  breadth,  depth,  tonnage  and  speed  ? 
How  is  it  possible  to  fashion  a  fabric  of  steel  able  to  main- 
tain its  equilibrium  under  all  and  varying  conditions  of 
weather  :  to  devise  the  million  and  one  component  parts 
so  that  they  may  be  united  and  adapted  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  be  able  to  withstand  the  heavy  blows  inflicted  by 
wind  and  wave  ? 

These  are  easy  questions  to  ask,  but  very  difficult  to 
answer  clearly.  The  naval  architect  aspires  to  the  highest 
range  of  mathematics,  while  his  mind  is  steeped  in  figures 
and  formulas  so  abstruse  as  to  defy  resolution  into  the 
comprehensive  simplicity  of  the  alphabet  for  the  benefit 
of  the  uninitiated. 

When  the  shipowner  decides  to  purchase  a  new  vessel 
two  courses  are  open  to  him.  He  can  either  appoint  his 
own  naval  architect  to  prepare  the  plans  and  designs  for  a 
craft  such  as  he  desires,  to  be  passed  on  to  the  shipbuilder 
for  fulfilment,  or  he  may  go  to  the  latter  and  say,  "I  want 
a  steamship,"  accompanying  the  request  with  a  rough  idea 
c  17 


i8    STEAMSHIP    CONQUEST   OF    THE    WORLD 

of  the  contemplated  carrying  capacity  of  the  boat,  the  part 
of  the  world  in  which  it  is  to  trade,  the  character  of  the 
traffic,  together  with  one  or  two  additional  minor  details, 
leaving  the  shipbuilder  to  work  out  the  most  satisfactory 
and  economical  design  coinciding  with  these  fundamental 
demands.  This  latter  procedure,  it  may  be  pointed  out,  is 
the  more  successful  and  most  generally  practised,  as  the 
shipbuilder,  having  the  whole  enterprise  from  A  to  Z  in 
his  hands,  and  with  his  reputation  at  stake,  may  be  trusted 
to  give  the  utmost  value  for  money,  free  from  any  novelties 
and  fads  which  have  not  emerged  from  the  searching  school 
of  commercial  test.  The  shipbuilder  is  a  hard-headed, 
practical  man  :  he  runs  no  risks,  nurses  no  fantastic 
theories,  but  gives  the  product  of  approved  design  born 
of  long  and  varied  experience. 

If  the  boat  be  of  the  tramp  class,  the  chances  are  a 
thousand  to  one,  if  the  shipbuilding  organisation  is  of 
long  standing,  eminent  reputation,  and  possessed  of  exten- 
sive facilities — such  as,  for  instance,  a  firm  like  Swan, 
Hunter,  &  Wigham  Richardson,  Limited,  at  Wallsend  on 
Tyne — that  a  vessel  possessing  similar  features,  and  which 
has  proved  highly  satisfactory  in  operation,  has  been  built 
previously  for  another  shipowner.  This  former  success 
forms  the  basis  for  the  new  boat;  the  pattern,  as  it  were. 
The  projected  craft  may  vary  in  details  of  dimensions  and 
speed,  but  the  modifications  to  suit  these  conditions  may 
be  effected  very  easily.  Neither  the  shipbuilder  nor  the 
shipowner  will  entertain  any  doubts  about  the  result — the 
vessel  will  be  built  upon  the  fruit  of  experience.  This,  it 
may  be  mentioned,  is  the  issue  which  governs  the  success 
of  a  shipbuilding  yard  more  than  anything  else.  The  old- 
established  concern  which  has  turned  out  vessels  of  all 
descriptions  year  after  year,  and  which  consequently  has 
accumulated  comprehensive  knowledge  and  skill  in  every 
branch  of  the  industry,  occupies  a  unique  and  unassailable 
position.  Experience  trained  upon  such  lines  must  build 
up  a  powerful  reputation  of  which  the  shipbuilder,  naturally, 
is  extremely  jealous. 


THE   BIRTH    OF   A    STEAMSHIP  19 

With  such  firms  shipbuilding  is  resolved  into  a  state  of 
affairs  somewhat  analogous  to  that  of  a  tailor;  that  is,  so 
far  as  the  conventional  class  of  vessel  is  concerned.  As 
the  worker  in  cloth  keeps  the  measurements  of  a  customer 
on  record,  so  does  the  shipbuilder  file  the  designs  of  every 
type  of  ship  which  he  has  built. 

Of  course,  when  the  shipowner  desires  a  vessel  which 
represents  a  pioneer  craft,  something  different  from  any- 
thing which  has  been  launched  before,  elaborate  pre- 
liminary researches  and  investigations  are  essential.  This 
was  particularly  the  case  when  the  British  Government 
came  to  the  aid  of  the  Cunard  Line  for  the  building  of  the 
Lusiiania  and  Mauretania.  Both  vessels  are  the  marvel 
of  this  age,  no  matter  from  what  point  of  view  they  are 
regarded.  The  second  vessel,  in  particular,  is  a  wonderful 
creation.  Not  only  has  she  astonished  the  travelling  public 
and  her  owners,  but  the  anticipations  of  her  designers  and 
builders  have  been  adequately  fulfilled.  What  is  more  to 
the  point,  fresh  surprises  are  being  sprung  upon  all  con- 
cerned in  her  welfare  at  every  turn.  At  the  present 
moment  she  is  not  only  the  fastest  liner  in  the  world,  but 
she  stands  as  the  most  imposing  monument  to  British 
marine  engineering.  She  has  been  excelled  in  size,  in 
accordance  with  the  progressive  spirit  of  the  times,  but  in 
speed,  luxurious  comfort  and  consistent  running  she  has 
not  been  eclipsed  by  the  product  of  any  other  British  or 
foreign  shipyard.  On  her  trial  trips  she  notched  the 
highest  speed  ever  attained  by  a  merchant  vessel — 27  knots, 
or  31  miles,  per  hour. 

She  ploughs  to  and  fro  the  Atlantic,  ignoring  seas  and 
weather,  at  a  steady  2$^  knots  per  hour,  her  best  average 
speed  from  coast  to  coast,  up  to  the  time  of  writing,  being 
26'o6  knots  per  hour.  She  has  placed  some  other  astonish- 
ing achievements  on  record  also.  Early  in  her  first  season 
one  of  her  four  propellers  was  damaged  by  striking  some 
sunken  wreckage,  but  the  pressure  of  traffic  was  so  heavy 
that  the  liner  could  not  be  withdrawn  from  the  service  to 
be  dry-docked  for  an  inspection.  Accordingly  it  was 
c  2 


20    STEAMSHIP    CONQUEST   OF    THE    WORLD 

decided  to  run  the  vessel  until  the  end  of  the  season  with 
the  affected  propeller  and  its  turbine  shut  down.  Yet,  in 
spite  of  having  only  three  screws  working,  she  still  was 
able  to  maintain  the  service  adequately. 

The  most  remarkable  performance,  however,  was  still  to 
come.  As  is  well  known,  the  Lusitania  and  the  Mauretania 
maintain  the  express  mail  service  traffic  of  the  Cunard 
Company  between  Liverpool  and  New  York,  the  two  ships 
being  given  a  very  brief  rest  in  port  on  either  side  of  the 
Atlantic,  so  that  they  are  worked  practically  at  full  pressure 
the  whole  time.  In  one  season  the  Mauretania  completed 
27  consecutive  trips  across  the  Atlantic — 13J  round  voyages 
— -reeling  off  no  less  than  77,500  knots — 89,242  miles — at  an 
average  speed  throughout  of  25J  knots,  or  29"36  miles,  per 
hour.  This  is  a  record  absolutely  unprecedented  in  the 
whole  history  of  the  steamship. 

Yet  when  one  reads  about  these  smart  achievements  of 
the  Mauretania,  or  sees  her  driving  along  at  full  speed, 
one  never  gives  a  thought  to  the  infinitely  laborious 
experiments  and  calculations  involved  before  even  her  keel 
was  laid.  A  long  list  of  men,  famous  for  their  association 
with  marine  engineering  problems — such  experts  as  Sir 
William  White,  Sir  E.J.  Reed,  the  Honourable  Sir  Charles 
A.  Parsons,  Dr.  Brum,  Messrs.  George  B.  Hunter,  W. 
Johns,  McQuorn  Rankine,  W.  and  R.  E.  Froude,  together 
with  the  expert  staff  of  the  builders — contributed  to  her 
design. 

In  planning  a  special  type  of  vessel  many  varied 
factors  have  to  be  taken  into  consideration.  There  are 
questions  of  stability — one  of  the  vital  problems  of  the 
ship — speed,  economy  and  steadiness  w^hen  travelling  at 
full  speed,  not  only  in  smooth,  but  also  in  rough,  w-eather, 
which  have  to  be  threshed  out  thoroughly.  When  the 
Mauretania  was  taken  in  hand  the  mathematicians  pre- 
pared ideas  which,  they  concluded,  would  fall  within  the 
four  corners  of  the  essential  requirements;  but  calculations 
were  not  sufficient.  At  the  Admiralty  experimental  tank 
at  Haslar  small  models  were  prepared  from  paraffin  wax, 


THE   BIRTH    OF    A    STEAMSHIP  21 

in  accordance  with  mathematical  deductions  as  to  shape 
and  form  of  the  hull,  and  which  were  in  proportion  to  the 
vessel  contemplated.  For  instance,  one  model  corresponded 
to  a  full-sized  ship,  760  feet  in  length  by  80  feet  wide,  and 
displacing  34,000  tons  of  water;  while  another  was  the 
diminutive  edition  of  a  boat  725  feet  long  by  80  feet  wide, 
and  displacing  32,900  tons.  Each  successive  model  varied 
from  its  predecessor  in  some  detail  or  other.  One  had  a 
very  much  sharper  bow,  another  had  a  finer  run  aft  than 
its  fellow,  and  so  on.  Time  after  time  these  models  were 
towed  through  the  experimental  tank  by  an  overhead 
travelling  carriage,  upon  which  were  mounted  delicate 
instruments  to  record  the  towing  speed,  and  a  mass  of 
other  technical  data.  From  the  accumulation  of  these 
repeated  tests,  at  varying  speeds,  it  was  possible  to  see 
how  closely  mathematical  deductions  were  allied  to  prac- 
tice, and  which  was  the  most  favourable  and  scientifically 
correct  design. 

In  the  experimental  tank  the  wax  models  were  what  are 
known  as  "naked  forms."  That  is  to  say,  only  the  bare 
shape  of  the  hull  was  taken,  without  any  allowances  being 
made  for  increased  resistances  and  disturbances  arising 
from  the  projections  from  the  body,  such  as  those  carrying 
the  propellers.  Nor  were  the  most  advantageous  positions 
for  the  third  and  fourth  screws  determined  thereby.  The 
upper  works  of  the  vessel  were  also  omitted  in  these 
investigations,  and  seeing  that,  in  the  case  of  the  Maure- 
tania,  three  additional  decks  were  to  be  provided  above 
the  level  of  the  top  of  the  model,  which  corresponded  to 
the  shelter  deck,  together  with  four  funnels,  navigating 
bridge,  etc.,  it  will  be  realised  that  a  considerably  increased 
area  was  to  be  offered  to  the  wind  in  the  ultimate  liner, 
which  was  certain  to  exercise  a  marked  influence  upon  the 
speed. 

Realising  the  portentous  risks  attending  the  venture, 
the  builders  of  the  Mauretania  embarked  upon  a  series  of 
searching  experiments  independently  of  the  Investigation 
Committee  appointed  by   the   British   Government.     The 


22     STEAMSHIP    CONQUEST   OF    THE    WORLD 

experimental  tank  tests  had  settled  the  main  dimensions  of 
the  ship — 790  feet  by  88  feet  beam — together  with  the  form 
of  the  hull,  and  therefore  the  carrying  capacity.  The 
additional  investigations  were  made  to  decide  profound 
questions  left  unsolved  by  the  tank  experiments,  such  as 
those  pertaining  to  the  driving  machinery  of  the  vessel, 
etc.  Speed  was  such  an  imperative  consideration  that  it 
was  essential  to  settle  the  position,  sfze  and  shape  of  the 
propellers,  together  with  the  collection  of  data  respecting 
the  effect  of  wind  upon  the  superstructure.  At  the  time 
practically  nothing  was  known  about  the  propulsion  of 
vessels  by  four  propellers,  and  very  little  about  triple  pro- 
pellers. The  twin  screw  was  the  standard  practice ;  the 
three  propellers  had  just  come  into  vogue,  but  conclusive 
data  concerning  this  subject,  as  a  result  of  commercial 
application,  was  lacking. 

The  Tyneside  builders  designed  a  small  launch,  one-six- 
teenth of  the  size  of  the  projected  liner,  for  the  purposes  of 
their  investigations.  Whereas  the  wax  models  had  been 
towed  in  the  tank,  this  little  craft  was  self-propelled,  being 
fitted  with  electric  motors  for  this  purpose,  sufficient  accu- 
mulators being  stowed  aboard  to  permit  it  to  be  driven  at 
full  speed  continuously  for  three  hours.  Each  propeller 
shaft  was  fitted  with  an  independent  motor,  so  that  its  screw 
might  be  started  and  stopped  independently  as  required. 

The  Northumberland  Dock,  having  a  width  of  100  feet 
and  a  depth  of  24  feet  of  water,  was  selected  for  the  tests. 
In  this  space  the  launch  was  given  a  clear  run  of  about 
440  yards  to  travel  at  its  maximum  speed,  with  margins 
at  either  end  in  which  to  secure  a  flying  start  and  to  pull 
up  respectively.  Although,  of  course,  such  adverse 
influences  as  currents  and  other  underwater  disturbances 
were  not  manifest,  on  the  other  hand  the  launch  was 
subject  to  the  effects  of  the  wind.  Time  after  time  it  was 
driven  up  and  down  this  confined  area  at  varying  speeds 
and  under  divergent  conditions,  not  only  for  the  purpose 
of  obtaining  new  light  upon  certain  obscure  issues,  but 
also  to  check  and  counter-check  the  data  gleaned  with  the 


THE    BIRTH    OF   A    STEAMSHIP  23 

wax  models  in  the  testing  tank.  Delicate  recording  instru- 
ments were  placed  on  board  the  little  craft  to  measure 
speed,  wind  resistance,  engine-power,  propeller  revolutions 
and  so  forth.  The  information  secured  as  a  result  of  these 
investigations,  spread  over  a  period  of  two  years,  was  of 
the  most  voluminous  and  exhaustive  character. 

Some  of  the  results  obtained  certainly  were  startling. 
For  instance,  in  order  to  give  an  idea  of  the  wind  forces 
and  their  influences  upon  speed,  power,  etc.,  it  was  calcu- 
lated that  to  enable  the  Mauretania  to  maintain  a  speed 
of  25  knots  per  hour  against  a  head  wind  blowing  at  equal 
velocity,  12  per  cent,  more  power  would  be  required 
than  to  uphold  the  same  speed  in  calm  weather.  On  the 
other  hand,  with  a  following  wind  of  identical  velocity  the 
liner  would  be  able  to  notch  the  25  knots  per  hour  with 
about  4  per  cent,  less  power  than  in  calm  weather. 

Over  500  speed  trials  were  made  with  this  launch  to 
determine  the  most  suitable  propellers  with  regard  to  high 
number  of  revolutions  and  high  efficiency.  Twelve  sets 
of  propellers,  of  different  proportions,  each  reproduced 
exactly  to  scale  in  every  particular  from  those  contemplated 
for  the  full-sized  ship,  were  made.  The  position  of  the 
third  and  fourth,  or  wing,  propellers,  driven  by  the  high- 
speed turbines,  also  occasioned  elaborate  and  patient  study. 
The  importance  of  these  trials  may  be  gauged  from  the 
fact  that  there  was  a  variation  in  power  for  the  same  speed 
of  as  much  as  5000  indicated  horse-power.  Altogether 
some  400  diagrams,  each  containing  about  12  tests — an 
aggregate  of  nearly  5000  records — were  obtained  from 
these  two  years'  work ;  and  from  these  prolific  data  the 
dimensions  and  other  details  concerning  the  horse-power, 
displacement  and  a  thousand  and  one  other  indispensable 
facts  were  resolved. 

It  is  doubtful  whether  the  construction  of  any  vessel  in 
the  history  of  the  merchant  marine  ever  has  been  attended 
by  such  exhaustive  preliminary  work  for  the  purpose  of 
reducing  the  element  of  chance  to  its  most  infinitesimal 
proportions.      Of   course,    the    expenditure    of    ^2000,    or 


24    STEAMSHIP    CONQUEST   OF    THE    WORLD 

$10,000,  by  the  builders  of  the  Mauretania  upon  these 
researches  has  contributed  a  wealth  of  new  information 
pertaining  to  shipbuilding  science,  over  and  above  that 
required  immediately  for  the  Cunarder.  It  has  enabled  the 
organisation  identified  therewith  to  place  itself  in  the  fore- 
most rank  among  the  world's  shipbuilders,  since  it  has 
fathomed  problems  and  has  harvested  knowledge  which 
still  remain  to  be  sounded  and  reaped  by  rivals. 

When  the  calculations  for  a  vessel  have  been  decided, 
and  the  naval  architect  has  elaborated  his  scheme,  what 
are  known  as  the  longitudinal  section,  or  "profile,"  and 
the  "'midship  section  "  drawings  are  prepared.  The  latter 
is  a  cross-section  of  the  vessel  amidships.  On  this  drawing 
all  the  dimensions  of  the  steelwork  constituting  the  skeleton 
of  the  vessel,  together  with  the  skin,  the  decks  and  other 
information,  are  indicated,  for  the  guidance  and  approba- 
tion of  the  surveyors  of  Lloyd's,  or  of  any  other  classifica- 
tion society,  in  accordance  with  the  rules  of  which  the 
vessel  is  being  constructed.  These  societies  have  laid 
down  the  dimensions  for  the  integral  parts  of  vessels  of 
varying  tonnage,  length  and  duties,  and  from  the  "  'mid- 
ship" section,  togtether  with  the  full  'details  inscribed 
thereon,  the  surveyor  is  able  to  see  just  how  and  of  what 
material  the  ship  is  to  be  built,  inasmuch  as  every  other 
part  of  the  boat  must  bear  its  relationship  to  this  section. 

The  designer  now  proceeds  to  "lay  down  the  lines,"  or 
shape  of  the  hull,  upon  paper.  As  is  well  known,  a  vessel 
is  very  sharply  pointed  at  the  bow,  the  stem  being  a  kind 
of  knife-edge  to  cut  the  water.  Thence  the  hull  swells  out 
gradually  to  amidships,  which  is  the  widest  part  of  the 
boat,  whence  it  gradually  decreases  in  width  once  more  as 
the  stern  is  approached.  The  deck  of  a  ship,  when  looking 
from  above,  somewhat  resembles  a  cigar,  the  point  of  the 
latter  corresponding  to  the  bow,  and  the  blunt  end  to  the 
rounded  stern. 

Now  the  shipowner,  after  the  designs  for  his  boat  have 
been  prepared,  naturally  wishes  to  have  some  idea  of  its 
ultimate  appearance.     For  this  purpose,  what  is  known  as 


liy pirniissioH  of  ihc  Xorth  Gdr?iiaii  Lloyd"\ 

THE   TESTING    TANK 

Wax  models  are  prepared  to  sca'e  to  be  towed  by  means  of  an  overhead  travellint 
carriage,  carrying  numerous  delicate  recording  instruments. 


'"'M. 


THE    MAMMOTH    l.i.NKK  S    BACKBONE 

The  ■'  Keelson  "  of  the  Olym/n'c,  showing  the  hiit;e  powerful  hydraulic  riveter 
suspended  fr<.)m  the  overhead  cranes. 


THE   BIRTH    OF    A    STEAMSHIP  25 

a  "half-model  "  is  made.  This  is  fashioned  from  solid 
wood,  generally  to  the  scale  of  J  inch  to  the  foot,  but 
which  represents  only  one-half  of  the  ship,  cut  vertically 
in  twain  from  stem  to  stern.  A  model  of  the  whole  vessel 
is  not  necessary,  because  the  two  halves  must  be  alike. 
This  half-model  is  mounted  upon  a  board,  and  submitted 
to  the  shipowner  for  his  approval.  At  this  point  some 
modifications  in  the  shape  of  the  hull  may  be  deemed 
necessary.  Looking  at  the  model,  the  experienced  eye  of 
the  builder,  or  even  the  owner  himself,  may  suggest  that 
it  should  be  a  little  fuller  here,  finer  there,  a  little  rounder 
somewhere  else,  and  so  on,  for  the  improvement  of  the 
vessel . 

As  it  is  usual  for  the  lines  of  a  ship  to  be  put  down 
approximately  in  the  first  instance — the  half-model  is  pre- 
pared therefrom — when  the  shape  of  the  model  is  adjusted, 
the  lines  themselves,  as  laid  down  by  the  draughtsman,  are 
revised  simultaneously.  The  half-model  is  of  great  assist- 
ance to  the  shipbuilder,  inasmuch  as  thereon  are  marked 
the  frames,  the  plates,  and  various  other  details,  to  facilitate 
the  ordering  of  the  constructional  material. 

"Drawing  the  lines,"  which  is  virtually  the  translation 
of  the  contour  of  the  half-body  from  the  model  to  a  flat 
surface,  is  carried  out  at  the  Wallsend  shipyards  upon 
large  marble-topped  tables.  This  surface  is  far  and  away 
preferable  to  paper,  which,  being  liable  to  shrinkage  and 
expansion,  is  apt  to  render  the  drawings  less  accurate, 
while  alterations  may  be  made  more  cleanly,  and  when  the 
work  is  finished  the  whole  may  be  erased  with  soap.  To 
the  uninitiated  the  drawing  at  this  stage  represents  a 
tangled  network  of  lines,  but  the  draughtsman  knows 
exactly  the  meaning  of  each  outline,  and  instantly  can 
inform  one  what  part  of  the  hull  it  represents. 

While  this  work  has  been  progressing  calculators  have 
been  busy  resolving  the  paper  ship  into  its  equivalent  of 
material,  and  have  prepared  estimates  of  just  how  much 
metal  of  all  descriptions,  forms,  shapes  and  sizes  will  be 
required.     Also,  they  have  computed  the  number  of  rivets 


26    STEAMSHIP    CONQUEST   OF    THE    WORLD 

which  will  be  necessary  to  hold  the  fabric  together,  the 
quantity  of  wood  to  complete  the  decks  and  internal  fit- 
tings, the  upholstery  for  the  furniture — in  short,  every  one 
of  ten  thousand  parts,  down  to  the  uttermost  cup-hook  in 
the  steward's  pantry.  These  estimates  are  voluminous 
records,  varying  from  a  few  pages  for  a  small  launch  to  a 
bulky  volume  or  two  in  the  case  of  a  monster  liner.  Not 
an  item  is  overlooked,  no  matter  how  small  and  insignifi- 
cant it  may  appear.  Individually  minor  details  may  repre- 
sent only  a  trivial  amount — a  copper  or  two — but  in  the 
aggregate  thev  form  an  imposing  total.  Thus,  one  will 
see  so  many  tons  of  plates  for  the  hull,  so  many  hundred 
thousand  rivets,  not  in  hastily  judged  round  numbers,  but 
to  the  utmost  digit,  with  no  allowances  for  waste.  The 
timber  is  similarly  itemised,  the  estimated  quantity,  perhaps 
of  as  many  as  thirty  different  qualities  and  varieties,  being 
duly  set  forth.  The  system  and  procedure  are  just  the  same 
as  those  incidental  to  the  erection  of  a  house.  As  the 
surveyor  takes  off  the  quantities  from  the  domestic  archi- 
tect's drawings,  so  does  the  shipbuilder  ascertain  exactly 
what  his  constructional  requirements  will  be  in  connection 
with  the  vessel.  The  only  difference  is  that  the  work  of 
the  latter  is  far  more  elaborate  and  intricate,  owing  to  the 
more  complicated  character  of  the  ship,  and  the  larger 
number  of  component  parts  necessary  for  its  completion. 

Another  calculator  proceeds  with  the  estimate  concerning 
the  cost  of  labour  in  the  various  trades  involved,  which 
may  range  over  thirty  or  more.  Thus  there  will  be 
estimates  of  the  cost  of  labour  in  regard  to  plating,  rivet- 
ing, joinery,  painting,  polishing  the  woodwork,  upholstery, 
installing  electric  light,  plumbing,  machinery  and  so  forth. 
These  schedules  are  exceedingly  comprehensive  and 
thorough,  but  are  imperative,  because  no  single  item  must 
be  overlooked  or  be  a  mere  guess.  Haphazard  calculations 
mean  all  the  difference  between  "profit  and  loss";  the 
omission  of  this  or  that  detail  endangers  the  shipbuilder's 
balance  on  the  right  side  very  seriously.  For  instance,  in 
the  steelwork  waste  has  to  be  reduced  to  the  very  smallest 


THE   BIRTH    OF   A    STEAMSHIP  27 

possible  limit,  for  the  simple  reason  that  "scrap,"  if  you 
care  to  call  as  such  that  metal  which  is  not  used,  when 
returned  to  the  steelmakers  only  fetches  about  one-third 
of  what  it  cost  the  shipbuilder  originally.  Under-estimat- 
ing is  just  as  serious  as  over-estimating.  The  shipbuilder 
bases  the  price  of  the  boat  upon  the  cost  of  material  at  the 
time  of  the  tender.  Should  he,  therefore,  find  himself 
short  of  material  some  six  months  later,  when  the  vessel  is 
assuming  its  shape  on  the  stocks,  and  have  to  remedy  this 
deficiency,  he  may  be  called  upon  to  pay  considerably 
more  for  his  additional  needs,  if  the  prices  of  materials 
have  risen  in  accordance  with  market  fluctuations.  It  is 
not  surprising,  therefore,  that  the  most  scrupulous  care  is 
displayed  in  preparing  the  estimates,  and  that  the  work  is 
carried  out  by  the  most  experienced  men,  who,  from  many 
years'  service  in  this  one  branch  alone,  are  not  likely  to 
err  on  one  side  or  the  other.  Similarly,  one  does  not 
wonder  that  elaborate  checking  and  counter-checking  are 
followed,  to  make  assurance  doubly  sure. 

To  the  untrained  eye  the  stage  at  which  a  ship  com- 
mences to  assume  its  definite  and  familiar  form  is  in  the 
mould-loft.  This  is  a  spacious,  well-lighted  building, 
paved  with  a  substantial  wooden  floor,  which  is  blackened. 
The  shipbuilder,  in  technical  parlance,  calls  this  the 
"scrieve-board,"  but  the  school-boy  would  describe  it  as  a 
huge  blackboard  laid  on  the  ground,  because  it  recalls  this 
indispensable  unit  of  the  school-room's  equipment.  The 
"loftsman,"  armed  with  a  substantial  piece  of  chalk, 
wanders  over  this  black  field,  transferring  the  drawings 
of  the  ship  prepared  by  the  draughtsman  to  its  surface, 
only  in  this  instance  the  drawings  are  to  full  size. 

This  is  one  of  the  most  responsible  stages  in  the  whole 
evolution  of  the  vessel,  because,  should  an  error  have  crept 
in  and  have  been  overlooked  in  the  drawing  office,  it  should 
be  detected  here.  Under  an  expert  eye  this  is  not  difficult, 
as  a  mistake  which  might  not  have  been  readily  discernible 
when  working  upon  paper  at  a  scale  of  J  inch  per  foot 
now  becomes  glaring,  inasmuch  as  it  is  greatly  magnified. 


28    STEAMSHIP    CONQUEST   OF    THE    WORLD 

owing  to  the  translation  of  the  design  to  full  scale.  The 
frames  are  drawn,  together  with  the  precise  points  at  which 
they  are  connected  up  to  other  parts  of  the  skeleton  or  body 
of  the  hull,  while  the  exact  places  at  which  the  ribs,  or 
frames,  are  to  be  fixed  to  the  keel  are  indicated. 

The  lines  committed  to  the  floor,  the  curves  are  taken 
by  means  of  long,  flexible  wooden  battens,  which  are  deftly 
and  quickly  bent  to  the  chalk  outline,  to  provide  a  wooden 
pattern,  or  template,  for  fashioning  the  steel  frame  to  form 
one  of  the  ribs,  beams  or  some  other  part  of  the  vessel. 
The  other  details  of  the  structural  parts  are  completed  in 
a  similar  manner.  The  templates  are  not  only  made  to 
shape,  but  are  drilled  wherever  required,  to  indicate  the 
position  of  the  rivets,  and  so  on.  Thus  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  skeleton  of  the  ship,  in  the  first  instance,  is  pre- 
pared in  wood  throughout,  in  sections,  and  to  full  dimen- 
sions. Each  template  receives  an  identification  mark  to 
signify  its  relative  position  in  the  hull,  and  then  is  turned 
over  to  be  copied  in  metal. 

The  mould-loft  is  one  of  the  most  fascinating  corners 
of  the  shipbuilding  yard,  because  one  is  enabled  to  realise 
the  untiring  care  and  patience  that  are  displayed  in  the 
initial  stages  pertaining  to  the  creation  of  a  vessel.  The 
foundations,  as  represented  by  the  mathematical  calcula- 
tions and  drawings,  arouse  only  a  fleeting  interest,  but  in 
the  mould-loft  one  sees  the  ship  maturing  in  wood  from  a 
bewildering  array  of  figures  and  apparently  unintelligible 
lines  and  curves. 


CHAPTER    III 

THE   CONSTRUCTION    OF   A    STEAMSHIP 

Once  the  steamship  has  emerged  from  the  chrysalis 
stage  in  the  moulding  loft  its  growth  is  rapid.  Down  by 
the  waterside  gangs  of  brawny  workmen  are  engaged 
busily  preparing  the  berth  in  which  the  creation  of  steel 
is  to  assume  its  permanent,  familiar  form.  The  berth,  or 
building  slip,  is  pitched  on  a  gentle  slope  shelving  into  the 
water,  for  the  purposes  of  launching,  as  described  in  a 
subsequent  chapter,  and  the  first  step  is  to  align  and  level 
the  blocks  of  wood  upon  which  the  keel,  or  backbone  of 
the  ship,  is  laid. 

The  yards  are  a  humming  hive  of  noisy  bustle.  They 
contrast  vividly  with  the  placidity  and  unostentatious 
activity  prevailing  in  the  drawing  offices.  There  the  birth 
of  the  steamship  is  carried  out  amid  a  quietness  which  is 
impressive,  because,  as  mentioned  already,  it  is  an  opera- 
tion effected  among  figures  and  drawings.  Down  in  the 
yards  the  fruit  of  brains  is  translated  into  energetic 
muscular  force ;  tranquillity  gives  way  to  an  ear-splitting 
and  nerve-shattering  din,  as  metal  meets  metal,  in  the  task 
of  bending,  trimming,  shaping  and  riveting  up. 

The  modern  shipyard  is  a  striking  illustration  of  highly 
developed  organisation,  applied  science  and  expert  human 
skill  in  its  most  compelling  phase  of  muscle  and  brain. 
Where  an  ounce  of  physical  energy  may  be  saved  and  a  few 
seconds  of  time  economised  by  mechanical  devices,  they 
are  adopted  with  alacrity.  The  equipment  of  a  yard  varies 
considerably.  I  have  been  in  some  where  the  berths  are 
open  to  the  sky,  but  are  flanked  on  either  side  by  tall, 
spidery  cranes,  having  long,  slender  arms  of  steel  which 

29 


30    STEAMSHIP    CONQUEST   OF    THE    WORLD 

pick  up  weighty  pieces  of  metal,  whisk  them  through  the 
air,  speedily  lifting  and  swinging  them  round  meanwhile, 
finally  to  be  lowered  exactly  into  the  desired  positions. 
At  Wallsend,  on  the  other  hand,  the  larger  berths  are 
under  lofty  glass  roofs,  shielding  the  workmen  from  in- 
clement weather,  so  that  work  may  be  continued  uninter- 
ruptedly. A  few  feet  below  the  roof  heavy  girders  stretch 
from  end  to  end  and  from  side  to  side.  By  craning  the 
neck  one  may  see,  high  above,  ugly,  irregular  blotches  of 
drab  silhouetted  against  the  transparent  glass.  They  are 
moving  continually  to  and  fro  like  restless  spiders,  which, 
indeed,  they  resemble,  so  high  are  they  above  the  ground. 
These  are  the  overhead  electric  travelling  cranes,  and  from 
each  depends  a  long,  thin  cable,  terminating  in  a  pon- 
derous hook.  The  latter  grabs  a  massive  sheet  of  steel  or 
a  long,  thin  girder,  and  without  a  sound  lifts  it.  While 
the  weight  vanishes  upward  the  crane  travels  lengthwise 
and  transversely  simultaneously,  so  as  to  bring  the  load 
over  the  appointed  spot.  Then,  lowering  rapidly  yet 
carefully,  the  charge  is  brought  to  rest  just  where  it  is 
required,  to  be  held  stationary  for  a  moment  or  two  until 
it  has  been  secured  to  the  accumulating  fabric,  when  the 
hook  is  released,  recedes  quickly  upwards,  and  the  crane 
dashes  off  for  another  load. 

As  the  wooden  templates  come  from  the  mould-loft  they 
are  diverted  to  one  of  a  hundred  departments,  to  be  repro- 
duced in  steel.  Massive  machines  appear  to  be  scattered 
about  with  apparent  indiscrimination  on  all  sides,  and  in 
their  black,  hump-like  heads  may  be  seen  a  small,  glitter- 
ing tooth  of  steel.  A  sheet  of  metal,  maybe  an  inch  in 
thickness,  twenty-five  feet  in  length  by  six  feet  in  width, 
and  tipping  the  beam  at  three  or  four  tons,  is  seen  clasped 
in  the  monster's  jaws.  The  steel  tooth  moves  up  and  down 
with  monotonous  regularity,  and  with  each  stroke  a  little 
disc  of  metal  falls  to  the  ground.  The  machine  is  punch- 
ing rivet-holes  through  the  ponderous  steel  plate  with  as 
much  ease  as  a  tasting  scoop  bores  into  cheese.  Another 
machine,  a  planer,  is  cutting  off  shavings  of  steel  as  if  it 


THE   CONSTRUCTION    OF    A   STEAMSHIP     31 

were  working  pitch-pine,  imparting  a  smooth,  even  face  to 
some  great  plate ;  while  a  bevelling  machine,  with  terrible 
grunting  and  groaning,  is  forcing  back  the  right-angle 
flange  of  a  steel  frame  with  no  more  effort  than  one  bends 
a  piece  of  cardboard. 

Each  shed  appears  to  be  engaged  in  a  deadly  struggle 
to  rival  its  neighbour  in  the  creation  of  noise.  If  sound 
offers  any  criterion  as  to  the  volume  of  work  that  is  being 
accomplished,  then  one  and  all  of  the  departments  must 
be  working  at  tip-top  pressure.  One  shop  in  particular 
emits  a  terrible  clatter.  This  is  where  the  slender  ribs 
of  the  ship  are  being  shaped.  It  differs  from  the  average 
conception  of  a  workshop,  inasmuch  as  it  is  open  on  three 
sides,  while  overhead,  in  the  low  roof,  is  the  ubiquitous 
electric-travelling  crane,  with  its  human  guide  perched 
upon  what  seems  to  be  an  extremely  uncomfortable  seat. 
The  floor  resembles  a  huge,  perforated  wooden  mat,  such 
as  is  to  be  seen  in  the  scullery  and  kitchen  of  a  hotel 
to  protect  the  feet  from  damp.  But  in  this  instance  the 
peculiar  flooring  serves  a  vastly  different  purpose.  The 
mat  is  built  up  of  great  slabs  of  cast-iron,  six  inches  or 
more  in  thickness,  with  the  holes,  about  one  and  a  half 
inches  square,  spaced  about  four  inches  apart  in  both 
directions. 

Scarcely  a  dozen  men  are  to  be  seen,  and  the  place  looks 
deserted.  Stealthily  the  overhead  crane  creeps  forward, 
bearing  a  long,  light  and  pliable  length  of  iron  bent  to 
an  outline.  It  is  one  of  the  templates  for  a  rib.  The 
foreman  of  the  gang  clutches  the  template  and  dumps  it 
upon  the  perforated  floor.  In  the  twinkling  of  an  eye  a 
chalk  line  has  been  drawn  along  the  edge  of  the  template 
upon  the  flooring,  as  if  it  were  a  ruler  upon  a  piece  of 
paper.  The  outline  is  tested  to  see  that  the  contour  is 
dead  correct,  and  then  the  template  is  moved  to  one  side. 
The  workmen  pick  up  short  lengths  of  bent  pieces  of  metal 
— dogs,  they  call  them — and  drop  them  into  the  holes  at 
desired  distances  apart,  on  one  side  of  the  chalk  mark. 

In  close  proximity  to  the  perforated  floor  a  furnace  is 


32    STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST   OF    THE    WORLD 

roaring  hungrily.  It  is  fired  with  suction  gas,  and  the  heat 
within  is  intense.  This  furnace  is  no  small  affair.  From 
end  to  end  it  measures  between  80  and  100  feet,  and  when 
the  door  is  swung  open  heavy,  long  pieces  of  metal — 
angle-bars  or  frames,  they  are  termed — may  be  seen 
glowing  within. 

The  foreman  gives  a  signal  wave  with  his  hand.  The 
workmen  hurry  forward,  fling  open  the  furnace  door,  and 
with  a  long  hook  grab  the  end  of  an  angle-bar  within.  A 
rope  is  attached  to  this  hook,  and  with  a  cheery  "Heave- 
ho  !  "  the  glowing  bar  is  dragged  out  and  thrown  upon 
the  floor.  One  end  of  the  beam  is  made  fast  by  means  of 
"dogs"  clamping  it  on  either  side.  Some  of  the  men, 
armed  with  the  hook,  seize  the  opposite,  free  end  of  white- 
hot  metal,  to  pull  on  it  with  might  and  main,  while  others, 
with  dexterous  strokes  of  their  heavy  sledge-hammers, 
pound  the  dazzling,  ductile  length  of  metal  at  different 
points,  so  that  it  is  bent  speedily  to  the  required  curve 
inscribed  on  the  floor.  Before  long  the  rib  has  lost  its 
lurid  tone,  and  has  assumed  a  bluish  tinge.  The  squad 
passes  along  its  curved  length  to  see  that  it  lies  evenly 
upon  its  bed.  If  there  is  a  slight  kink,  a  few  powerful 
blows  with  the  hammers  eliminate  the  bulge.  The  prac- 
tised eye  of  the  foreman  glances  along  the  rib  to  see  that 
it  toes  the  chalk  line  from  end  to  end.  Having  met  with 
his  critical  approval,  the  electric  crane  fusses  up,  a  hook 
is  passed  round  either  end  of  the  rib,  and  the  crane  backs 
down  the  shop,  bearing  away  the  frame  to  cool  and  to 
await  its  call  to  the  berth,  to  be  erected  in  its  allotted 
position  upon  the  slip. 

When  the  great  Cunarder  was  in  the  making,  the 
abnormal  lengths  and  great  size  of  some  of  the  ribs 
teased  the  benders  time  after  time.  The  heavy  sledge- 
hammer did  not  quite  meet  the  situation,  so  the  engineers 
set  to  work  to  devise  an  improved  mechanical  means  of 
driving  the  refractory  parts  of  a  rib  up  to  the  chalk  line. 
This  was  a  small  hydraulic  machine,  recalling  a  lawn- 
mower  in  its  general  appearance.     When  the  benders  were 


A    MASSINI-;    CASriNc. 

The  stern  frame  and  l)racket  of  one  of  tlie  C'vinard  l-'lyers.      Its  immense  size  may  be  jud,i;ed 

by  comparison  witli  the  railway  engine  driving  wheel.  6  feet  9  inclies  diameter, 

alongside.     Total  weiglit,  too  tons. 


SHKATIIKI)    IN    SCAl'l'OLIMNG 

The  bow  of  the  Maurdania  when  platiii.y    was  nearly  finished. 


THE    CONSTRUCTION    OF    A   STEAMSHIP     33 

confronted  with  a  ticklish  piece  of  shaping,  this  Httle 
machine  was  wheeled  up,  its  nose  brought  to  bear  against 
the  frame,  while  its  feet,  dropping  into  the  floor-holes,  kept 
it  rigidly  in  position.  A  flexible  pipe  coupled  to  a  hydrant 
was  turned  on,  and  the  water  admitted  into  the  cylinder. 
Instantly  the  tiny  nose  of  the  ram  reached  out,  and,  bearing 
against  the  hot,  soft  frame,  it  forced  it  forward,  with  a 
pressure  of  several  tons,  to  the  required  curve.  This  was 
only  one  of  many  ingenious  devices  which  the  engineers 
of  Swan,  Hunter,  &  Wigham  Richardson  contrived  to  meet 
awkward  situations.  It  proved  so  successful  and  rapid, 
and  so  much  more  effective  than  the  muscle-swung  ham- 
mers, that  it  has  been  extensively  adopted.  Whenever  a 
length  of  steel  evinces  a  disposition  to  resist  the  pounding 
of  the  hammers,  this  ram  is  adjusted,  and  the  metal  is  soon 
compelled  to  submit. 

The  first  actual  constructional  of)eration  in  the  ship- 
building berth  is  the  laying  of  the  keel.  In  the  average 
modern  ship  this  comprises  a  flat  plate,  instead  of  a  pro- 
jecting vertical  bar,  with  which  popular  conception  asso- 
ciates the  term  "keel."  The  latter  was  employed  before  the 
flat-bottomed  ship  came  into  vogue.  While  a  single  plate 
is  sufficient  for  the  keel-plate  in  a  small  vessel,  more  may 
be  required  in  a  large  boat.  The  Mauretania's  keel-plate, 
for  instance,  comprises  three  thicknesses  of  plating.  This 
plate  acts  as  a  rubbing  piece,  while  riveted  above  and  to 
it,  by  means  of  angle-bars,  is  the  "centre  keelson," 
which  extends  from  end  to  end  of  the  ship,  to  form  a 
massive  continuous  girder  connecting  the  two  skins  form- 
ing the  inner  and  outer  bottoms.  As  this  structure  con- 
stitutes the  backbone  of  the  ship,  it  is  built  up  of  most 
substantial  plates  riveted  together  solidly  from  one  end  to 
the  other.  The  backbone  of  the  Mauretania  is  decisively 
heavy  and  massive,  ranging  between  five  and  six  feet  in 
height,  the  latter  increased  depth  being  introduced  at  the 
points  where  the  weight  of  the  machinery  and  boilers  is 
imposed.  As  this  "centre  keelson"  is  solid  from  end  to 
end,  the  cellular  bottom,  or  space  between  the  two  skins, 

D 


34    STEAMSHIP    CONQUEST    OF    THE    WORLD 

is  divided  longitudinally.  The  flat  bottom  of  the  ship  rises 
in  a  graceful  curve  to  meet  the  sides,  and  the  bilge  keels 
are  placed  at  the  bends  to  reduce  rolling. 

When  the  keel-plate  has  been  laid  and  the  "centre 
keelson  "  has  been  erected,  the  floor-plates,  or  numerous 
divisions  of  the  cellular  double  bottom,  are  placed  in 
position.  The  frames  are  then  taken  in  hand,  and  this  task 
is  generally  commenced  from  amidships,  to  proceed  in 
either  direction  towards  the  stem  and  the  stern.  Simul- 
taneously the  bottom  plating  is  carried  on,  together  with 
the  formation  of  the  skin  of  the  inner  bottom,  or  tank-top 
plating,  as  it  is  called.  As  soon  as  the  frames  are  partially 
erected  the  bulkheads  are  pushed  forward,  while  the  deck 
beams  are  set  in  position.  If  the  stem  bar  which  completes 
the  forward  framing  of  the  ship  is  ready,  it  is  generally 
set  in  position  at  once,  so  as  to  get  it  out  of  the  way. 

So  far  as  the  erecting  work  in  the  front  part  of  the  ship 
is  concerned,  the  task  is  fairly  straightforward.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  most  difficult  section  is  the  stern,  and  as 
a  rule  the  shipbuilder  strives  to  get  its  heaviest  and  most 
ungainly  component  parts  in  position  early.  The  weight- 
iest part  of  the  whole  is  what  is  known  as  the  stern-post, 
the  propeller  brackets  and  the  rudder.  The  first-named 
is  the  piece  which  forms  the  rearmost  part  of  the  hull's 
frame ;  the  propeller  brackets  in  ships  having  more  than 
one  screw,  are,  as  the  name  implies,  the  two  arms  which 
support  the  extremities  of  the  shafts  carrying  the  pro- 
pellers; while  the  rudder  explains  itself.  Another  reason 
why  the  shipbuilder  endeavours  to  make  headway  with  this 
part  of  the  hull  is  to  be  able  to  proceed  with  the  plating 
in  good  time,  since  many  of  the  plates  under  the  ship's 
counter  and  round  about  the  stern-post  have  to  be  shaped 
specially,  'i'his  is  particularly  the  case  with  ships  having 
more  than  one  propeller,  as  in  this  instance  the  plates  must 
be  bent  round  the  propeller  brackets  and  those  frames 
which  are  "bossed,"  or  swelled  out,  to  provide  space  for 
the  propeller  shafts. 

In  ihe  case  of  a  huge  liner  like  the  Mauretania  the  stern- 


THE    CONSTRUCTION    OF    A   STEAMSHIP     35 

post,  propeller  brackets  and  rudder  are  formidable  pieces 
of  the  n>etal-worker's  craft.  In  this  Cunarder  the  stern 
post  complete  represents  a  weight  of  54  tons,  the  forward 
and  after  brackets  weigh  95  tons,  while  the  rudder  turns 
the  scale  at  64  tons.  These  were  all  special  castings,  and 
elaborate  preparations  had  to  be  made,  therefore,  by  the 
Darlington  Forge  Company,  which  has  achieved  some  very 
noteworthy  records  in  this  particular  field.  Although  these 
weights  are  huge,  they  have  been  since  eclipsed  by  those 
pertaining  to  the  Olympic,  which  are  phenomenal.  In 
this  vessel  the  stern  frame  represents  a  massive  casting 
weighing  190  tons,  70  tons  being  in  the  stern-post  itself. 
The  rudder,  when  placed  upright,  towers  to  a  height  of 
78f  feet,  is  15 J  feet  wide,  and  weighs  a  matter  of  loij  tons  ! 

Much  of  the  riveting  nowadays  is  accomplished  by 
means  of  hydraulic  tools.  These  are  cumbersome  appli- 
ances of  tremendous  power,  and  they  have  solved  the 
difficulty  of  dealing  with  heavy  riveting  in  a  most  complete 
manner.  For  such  work  as  connecting  up  the  plates  form- 
ing the  "centre  keelson,"  there  is  a  huge  jaw,  which 
drops  over  the  girder,  being  suspended  in  position  from 
an  overhead  trolley.  The  rivet  in  the  red-hot  state  is 
popped  into  its  appointed  hole  by  means  of  a  pair  of  tongs ; 
one  jaw  of  the  tool  fits  over  the  head,  and  the  other  clasps 
its  point.  The  hydraulic  energy  is  applied,  and  the  jaws, 
closing  with  the  force  of  fifty  tons,  crunch  the  rivet  like  a 
nut,  spreading  its  bottom  end  so  that  it  is  burred  over  to 
nip  the  attached  pieces  of  steel  firmly  together. 

In  other  instances  the  compressed-air  riveter  is  used. 
In  this  tool  there  is  a  small  cylinder  having  a  head  which 
vibrates  rapidly.  When  the  rivet  is  slipped  home  in  its 
hole,  the  end  of  the  cylinder  is  held  over  the  protruding 
point,  and  while  the  head  of  the  rivet  is  held  tightly  up, 
the  hammer  of  the  tool  pulsates  at  high  speed,  jamming 
the  edge  of  the  rivet  over  with  a  deafening  and  distinctive 
"  Br-r-r-rp — br-r-r-rp — br-r-r-r-rp  !  " 

Hand-riveting,  however,  has  not  been  superseded  alto- 
gether.    There  is  much  of  the  shell  and  many  awkward 


36    STEAMSHIP    CONQUEST    OF    THE    WORLD 

corners  on  a  ship  where  both  the  hydraulic  and  compressed- 
air  devices  for  this  purpose  are  impracticable.  Then  the 
rivet  is  driven  home  by  the  dexterous  strokes  of  the  human 
riveter.  Two  expert  workmen  with  a  few  deft  swings 
pound  the  exposed  glowing  point  of  a  rivet,  causing  it  to 
grip  tightly  by  spreading  in  its  hole.  A  couple  of  blows 
upon  the  head  of  a  chisel  held  against  the  protruding 
rivet  cuts  away  the  superfluous  metal,  when  another  hot 
rivet  is  inserted  into  the  next  hole,  which  is  treated  in  a 
similar  manner.  The  workmen  now  return  to  the  previously 
driven  rivet,  and  strike  at  its  cooled  end  until  it  clinches 
the  two  pieces  of  superimposed  metal  on  either  side.  Two 
attacks  are  made  upon  each  rivet,  with  a  brief  interval 
between,  to  complete  the  work  satisfactorily. 

The  steel  plates  forming  the  skin  of  the  vessel  are  dis- 
posed in  rows,  or  "strakes,"  as  they  are  called  in  the 
shipbuilder's  language.  These  sheets  of  metal  vary  in 
size,  weight  and  thickness,  high-water  mark  in  this  respect, 
so  far  as  the  Wallsend  yard  is  concerned,  having  been 
reached  with  the  Mauretania.  These  plates  in  some 
instances  measured  48  feet  in  length,  and  weighed  as  much 
as  5  tons  apiece,  so  that  they  were  formidable  sheets  of 
metal  to  manipulate.  They  were  secured  together  and  to 
the  skeleton  by  rivets  i^  inches  in  diameter.  By  the  time 
the  vessel  was  completed  over  4,000,000  rivets  had  been 
used,  representing  an  aggregate  weight  of  700  tons. 

After  the  frames,  bulkheads  and  beams  are  placed  in 
position  the  skin  plating  is  completed,  and  the  deck  plates 
are  laid  down.  The  only  space  left  is  the  gaping  hole  to 
admit  the  engine  and  boilers,  which  are  bedded  after  the 
vessel  has  been  launched  and  towed  alongside  the  fitting- 
out  wharf.  Previous  to  sending  the  ship  into  the  water, 
it  is  usual  also  to  place  in  position  the  propeller  shafting 
and  to  affix  the  propellers  themselves.  By  the  time  the 
Mauretania  was  ready  for  launching  a  total  weight  of 
16,800  tons  was  standing  in  the  berth,  and  this  represented 
the  heaviest  weight  that  had  ever  been  sent  down  the  ways 
up  to  that  time. 


■J 


AN    OCEAN    MONSTER   ASHORE 

This  photo  affords  a  striking  idea  of  the  immense  height  of  the  bow  of  the  Olympic 
as  she  rested  on  tlie  stoclcs. 


THE    CONSTRUCTION   OF    A   STEAMSHIP     37 

There  are  one  or  two  terms  employed  in  connection 
with  a  ship  which  deserve  explanation,  seeing  that  they 
so  often  lead  to  confusion.  As  a  rule  length  measurements 
are  expressed  in  two  ways — "over-all  "  and  "between  per- 
pendiculars "  respectively.  Thus,  for  instance,  the  Maure- 
tania  measures  790  feet  over-all,  and  760  feet  between 
perpendiculars.  The  former  explains  itself :  it  is  the 
extreme  length  of  the  ship  from  tip  to  tip,  as  it  were.  The 
second  term  is  quite  different.  It  signifies  the  distance 
between  the  perpendicular  line  of  the  stem  and  that  at  the 
stern  from  the  extremity  of  the  "centre  keelson."  As  is 
well  known,  the  deck  of  a  ship  overhangs  the  propellers, 
while  a  sharp  curve  is  described  upward  from  the  end  of 
the  keelson  to  the  point  where  the  rudder-post  enters  the 
fabric  of  the  ship  proper,  and  in  which  the  screws  revolve. 

Considerable  misunderstanding  also  exists  in  the  lay 
mind  concerning  the  terms  tonnage  and  displacement. 
Thus  we  read  that  a  vessel  has  a  certain  gross  tonnage, 
a  net  tonnage,  and  that  it  displaces  so  many  thousand 
tons.  Gross  and  net  tonnages  are  merely  measurements 
of  capacity  for  what  might  be  called  legal  and  statistical 
purposes,  as  well  as  forming  a  basis  for  the  levy  of  port 
dues.  Such  tonnage  is  an  arbitrary  measurement,  100 
cubic  feet  being  taken  to  represent  one  "ton."  In  cargo 
ships  the  carrying  capacity  of  the  vessel  is  stated  in  "tons 
dead  weight,"  that  is,  tons  avoirdupois,  although  for  special 
trades,  such  as  the  transportation  of  fruit,  capacity  in  cubic 
feet  may  be  given. 

Displacement  is  often  confused  with  tonnage.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  it  has  a  distinctively  different  meaning. 
When  we  say  that  the  Mauretania  displaces  44,540  tons, 
or  that  the  Olympic  has  a  displacement  of  62,000  tons, 
we  mean  that  the  ship,  with  everything  on  board  and 
laden  to  her  maximum  load-line,  or  draught,  displaces 
these  respective  weights  in  avoirdupois  tons  of  water.  In 
plain  English,  these  figures  represent  the  total  weights  of 
the  respective  vessels,  including  their  loads.  Displacement 
is  an  elastic  term,  because  it  varies  from  hour  to  hour.    As 


nS    STEAMSHIP    CONQUEST    OF    THE    WORLD 

the  furnaces  eat  up  the  coal  and  the  passengers  consume 
the  provisions,  the  ship  becomes  lighter  and  lighter,  so  that 
in  the  case  of  an  Atlantic  greyhound  the  difference  in  the 
displacement  when  arriving  at  New  York,  as  compared 
with  that  when  leaving  Europe,  may  vary  between  5000 
and  7000  tons. 


CHAPTER    IV 

THE   PROPELLING    MACHINERY 

It  is  a  far  cry  from  the  year  1838,  when  the  steam 
conquest  of  the  ocean  was  achieved  definitely  and  com- 
mercially, to  191 2.  Yet  in  these  74  years  progress  has  been 
marked.  The  pioneer  liner  Sirius  was  driven  by  paddle- 
wheels,  and  with  the  collective  energy  of  320  horses 
resolved  into  harnessed  steam  her  engines  were  able  to 
give  her  an  average  speed  of  7J  knots — 8f  miles — per  hour. 
At  the  time  this  was  considered  an  amazing  engineering 
achievement,  but  it  pales  into  insignificance  when  ranged 
beside  the  pace  of  the  crack  liners  of  to-day,  especially 
of  those  famous  sister  ships  flying  the  Cunard  flag. 
They  travel  3J  times  faster  than  did  the  Sirius,  but  their 
engines  are  more  than  200  times  as  powerful  in  order  to 
cross  the  North  Atlantic  in  a  quarter  of  the  time  occupied 
by  the  little  vessel  which  led  the  way.  This  comparison 
offers  a  graphic  idea  of  the  enormous  strides  that  have 
been  made  by  the  marine  engineer  in  the  space  of  three- 
quarters  of  a  century. 

Yet  evolution  was  comparatively  slow.  For  years  the 
paddle-wheel  held  undisputed  sway,  although  that  brilliant 
engineering  genius,  Brunei,  attempted  to  force  the  pace 
with  the  screw  in  the  Great  Britain,  designed  for  the  North 
Atlantic  mail  and  passenger  service.  When  this  vessel 
was  designed  originally,  paddle-wheels  were  to  be  the 
means  of  propulsion,  but  during  the  long  interval  that 
ensued  in  her  construction,  the  master-mind  busied  him- 
self in  experiments  with  the  screw,  and  finally  considered 
this  to  be  the  system  of  the  future.  At  the  time  of  this 
decision   the   paddle-wheel   engines   of   the    Great   Britain 

39 


40    STEAMSHIP    CONQUEST    OF    THE    WORLD 

were  half  completed,  but  Brunei,  with  his  characteristic 
disregard  of  expense,  scrapped  this  effort,  and  completed 
the  screw  propeller  and  machinery  for  the  ship.  His  judg- 
ment was  vindicated  by  results,  although  other  shipowners 
of  the  time,  in  concert  with  the  shipbuilders,  regarded  the 
innovation  coldly,  and  refused  toacknowledge  its  advantages. 

The  knell  of  the  paddle-wheel  liner  was  sounded  by  the 
Inman  Line,  which  came  into  existence  in  1850,  to  share 
the  harvest  of  the  Atlantic  passenger  and  mail  trade  with 
the  Cunard  Company.  This  rival  line  started  operations 
with  the  City  of  Glasgow,  built  on  the  Clyde,  and  driven 
by  a  single  screw.  The  Cunard  Company  had  been 
in  competition  with  the  Collins  Line,  and  was  now  beaten 
by  a  new  rival.  But  the  vanquished  company  clung 
tenaciously  to  the  paddle-wheels  until  1862,  when  the 
China  with  a  screw  propeller  appeared  on  the  seas  under 
its  flag.  This  tardy  action  on  the  part  of  the  Cunard 
Company  appears  somewhat  inexplicable,  inasmuch  as 
single  screw  steamers  had  been  running  in  its  Mediter- 
ranean service  with  complete  success  for  ten  years 
previously. 

A  few  years  later  came  the  twin  screw  liner,  the  short- 
comings of  a  single  propeller  having  been  made  plain  by 
one  or  two  alarming  accidents.  The  twin  screw  held  the 
field  until  the  Hon.  Sir  Charles  A.  Parsons  produced  his 
epoch-making  steam  turbine.  Then  the  Dumbarton  firm 
of  Denny  Brothers,  which  has  played  an  important  part 
in  the  history  of  steam  navigation,  introduced  a  third 
propeller,  for  reasons  explained  later,  and  the  vessel  so 
equipped  having  created  a  sensation  in  engineering  circles, 
the  idea  became  widely  adopted.  This  development 
received  its  crowning  triumph  in  the  Lusitania  and 
Mauretania.  After  months  of  the  most  searching  investi- 
gations by  the  foremost  marine  engineers  of  the  day,  it 
was  decided  to  fit  these  liners,  owing  to  the  extreme  size 
and  power  of  the  engines,  with  four  propellers.  If  present 
indications  afford  any  criterion,  this  will  be  the  standard 
for  fast,  huge  ocean  liners  of  the  future. 


THE    PROPELLING    GLWT    OF    A    RECORD-BREAKER    OE    THE      NINETIES 

One  set  of  the  triple  expansion  engines  of  the  Cainpa>iia  developing  30,000  horse-pouer.      Uuilt 

by  the  Fairfield  Engineering  Company  on  the  Clyde,  these  were  the  most  powerful  engines  which 

had  been  constructed  up  to  1892,  and  give  the  Cunarder  a  speed  of  22  knots  per  hour. 


THE    PROPELLING    MACHLNERY  41 

The  engines  supplying  the  requisite  power  to  the  pro- 
pellers have  undergone  a  similar  change.  The  earliest 
engines  were  exceedingly  primitive.  They  may  be  com- 
pared with  the  modern  engine  for  driving  a  ship  just  as 
the  Rocket  may  be  compared  with  the  latest  railway 
locomotive.  After  the  steam  had  completed  its  work  in 
the  cylinder  by  driving  down  the  piston  to  impart  a  rotat- 
ing movement  to  the  crank,  which  in  turn  revolved  the 
paddle-wheel  or  screw,  it  was  permitted  to  escape  into  the 
outer  atmosphere.  As  science  advanced,  the  engineer  came 
to  the  conclusion  that  a  considerable  quantity  of  power 
was  lost  in  the  exhausted  steam — that  it  had  not  expended 
fully  the  energy  it  possessed.  Accordingly,  a  second  and 
larger  cylinder  with  its  piston  was  coupled  to  that  into 
which  the  steam  was  admitted  direct  from  the  boiler.  The 
first  cylinder  was  of  relatively  small  proportions  as  com- 
pared with  its  neighbour,  and  the  gas,  after  completing  its 
work  in  the  former,  passed  into  the  latter,  where  it  was 
deprived  of  a  further  proportion  of  its  latent  energy.  This 
arrangement  was  known  as  the  compound  engine,  and  for 
many  years  it  held  the  field. 

The  system  was  successful,  but  as  time  went  on  the 
engineer  became  dissatisfied.  He  was  convinced  that  the 
steam  which  issued  from  the  second  cylinder  could  perform 
more  useful  work,  and  accordingly  a  third  cylinder,  larger 
still,  was  introduced.  This  gave  the  triple  expansion 
engine,  so  called  because  the  steam  expends  its  force  in 
three  degrees — in  the  high,  intermediate  and  low  pressure 
cylinders  respectively.  This  stage  did  not  indicate  finality. 
More  power  could  be  squeezed  out  of  the  steam  after  it 
emerged  from  the  third  cylinder;  consequently,  a  fourth 
was  added,  to  produce  the  quadruple  expansion  engine, 
which  represents  the  high-water  mark  in  marine  engineer- 
ing to-day,  so  far  as  the  familiar  reciprocating  engine  is 
concerned. 

As  the  twin  ships,  Lucania  and  Campania,  the  Teutonic 
and  Majestic,  and  the  City  of  New  York  and  City  of  Paris, 
were  the  crowning  triumphs  of  half  a  century  of  steam- 


42     STEAMSHIP    CONQUEST    OF    THE    WORLD 

ship  navigation,  so  their  respective  engines  represented 
a  magnificent  achievement  in  engineering.  So  far  as 
the  first  two  vessels,  which  were  built  in  the  shipyards 
of  the  Fairfield  Engineering  Company  on  the  Clyde,  are 
concerned,  the  two  sets  of  triple  expansion  engines  fitted 
within  their  steel  walls  were  the  most  powerful  that  had 
been  built  up  to  that  time.  The  combined  output  of  each 
installation  is  30,000  horse-power,  which  enables  the  ship, 
measuring  620  feet  in  length  by  65J  feet  wide,  and  weigh- 
ing 19,000  tons,  to  be  driven  at  an  average  speed  of  22 
knots  per  hour.  Each  set  of  engines  comprised  five  in- 
verted cylinders — two  high  pressure,  one  intermediate  and 
two  low  pressure  respectively — and  the  top  of  the  cylinder 
is  47  feet  above  the  base  of  the  engine.  The  pistons  are 
arranged  to  work  on  three  cranks,  set  at  an  angle  of  120 
degrees  from  each  other,  the  pistons  having  a  common 
stroke.  Each  set  of  engines  is  placed  in  a  water-tight  com- 
partment, separated  from  its  fellow  by  a  longitudinal 
bulkhead  extending  the  full  length  of  the  engine-room, 
and  provided  with  water-tight  doors  for  the  purposes  of 
inter-communication.  The  engines  are  fed  with  steam 
raised  in  twelve  boilers,  each  measuring  17  feet  in  length 
by  18  feet  in  diameter. 

Speed  demands  power,  and  when  the  German  companies- 
set  out  to  sweep  the  Atlantic  they  had  to  concentrate  their 
energies  upon  the  engine-room  and  its  machinery.  The 
Deutschland  weighs  about  6000  more  tons  than  the 
Cunarders  she  eclipsed,  is  66  feet  longer,  and  requires 
5000  additional  horse-power  to  eke  out  an  additional  i^ 
knots  per  hour,  her  two  sets  of  quadruple  expansion 
engines  developing  35,000  horse-power.  Each  engine  has 
six  inverted  cylinders,  the  pistons  being  connected  to  a 
shaft  having  four  cranks.  This  was  the  largest  crank- 
shaft which  had  been  forged  up  to  this  time.  To  keep 
these  two  huge  masses— one  for  each  set  of  engines — 
rotating  at  full  speed  16  large  boilers  fired  by  112  furnaces 
are  required,  devouring  a  ton  of  coal  between  them  every 
three  minutes.    More  impressive  still  are  the  engines  of  the 


THE    PROPELLING    MACHINERY  43 

Kronprinsessin  Cecilie,  also  of  the  quadruple  expansion 
type,  and  which  develop  46,000  horse-power  in  the  aggre- 
gate to  drive  27,000  tons  across  the  Atlantic  at  a  steady 
speed  of  23J  knots  per  hour.  Here  it  will  be  noticed  that 
the  increase  in  engine  power  over  her  rival  the  Deutschland 
is  no  less  than  11,000  for  a  similar  speed,  while  the  vessel 
is  20  feet  longer  and  weighs  2000  tons  more.  It  was  hoped 
in  Germany  that  this  enormous  aggregation  of  energy 
would  enable  the  vessel  to  rival  the  crack  Cunarders  pace 
at  25J  knots  per  hour,  but  these  anticipations  were  not 
fulfilled.  The  crank  shafts  are  mighty  forgings  in  steel, 
while  the  four-bladed  propellers  weigh  no  less  than  79,200 
pounds.  Steam  is  raised  in  19  cylindrical  boilers,  each 
weighing  about  100  tons  when  empty,  and  approximately 
150  tons  when  filled  with  water,  so  that  the  steam-generat- 
ing equipment  alone  represents  a  total  weight  of  no  less 
than  2,800  tons  in  working  order. 

As  may  be  imagined,  this  remarkable  growth  in  size, 
power  and  speed  brought  its  own  evils.  The  worst  of 
these  was  vibration,  which  increased  in  magnitude  until  it 
became  so  acute  as  to  render  travelling  in  the  very  high- 
speed boats  nauseating.  The  slower  British  boats  were 
comparatively  free  from  this  disadvantage,  and  conse- 
quently retained  their  patronage,  leaving  the  fastest  boats 
to  that  hustling  section  of  the  public  which  would  fain 
cross  the  Atlantic  in  a  single  night,  if  the  facilities  were 
available,  and  which  is  prepared  to  face  any  discomfort,  so 
long  as  the  cravings  for  the  annihilation  of  time  and 
distance  are  satisfied. 

The  British  engineers  realised  that  this  problem  of 
vibration  must  force  itself  to  the  front  sooner  or  later,  so, 
by  infinite  experiment  and  investigation,  they  strove  to 
reduce  it  to  the  minimum.  Messrs.  A.  F.  Yarrow,  John 
Tweedy  and  Robert  Humphrys  were  particularly  active  in 
these  researches,  in  collaboration  with  Dr.  Otto  Schlick. 
Their  combined  efforts  were  successful.  By  the  adjustment 
of  the  cranks,  and  the  relative  positions  and  movements  of 
the  various  moving  parts  of  the  engine,  they  secured  prac- 


44    STEAMSHIP    CONQUEST   OF    THE    WORLD 

tically  the  complete  elimination  of  the  vibration  bogey,  and 
accordingly  the  majority  of  large  and  powerful  marine 
engines  of  the  reciprocating  type — so  called  because  of  the 
up-and-down  motion  of  the  pistons — incorporate  the  dis- 
coveries of  these  workers  in  their  design,  and  are  described 
as  being  balanced  upon  the  Yarrow-Schlick-T  weedy 
system. 

With  the  advent  of  the  Deutschland  and  her  23j-knot 
contemporaries,  it  was  generally  believed  that  the  economi- 
cal limit  in  regard  to  this  type  of  marine  engine  had  been 
reached.  Meantime,  however,  in  Great  Britain  an  inventor 
had  been  working  steadily  and  quietly  in  a  new  field  with  a 
different  system  of  power  generator.  This  was  the  Honour- 
able Sir  Charles  Algernon  Parsons— son  of  the  famous 
third  Earl  of  Rosse,  who,  in  the  early  part  of  the  last 
century,  erected  a  gigantic  astronomical  telescope  at  his 
seat  near  Parsonstown,  in  Ireland — and  his  invention  was 
the  modern  steam  turbine,  which  has  changed  completely 
the  whole  science  of  express  steamship  practice,  where  high 
speed  is  the  paramount  consideration.  For  years  he  prose- 
cuted his  experiments  with  dogged  perseverance,  and 
finally  produced  a  small  craft,  the  Turbinia,  driven  by 
nine  propellers  arranged  in  sets  of  three  upon  three  shafts. 

This  famous  little  vessel  measures  loo  feet  in  length, 
has  a  beam  of  9  feet,  and  weighs  complete  in  running 
order  44J  tons,  of  which  the  driving  installation — 
machinery,  boilers,  screws,  etc. — represent  22  tons.  The 
total  horse-power  developed  is  about  2000,  and  this  suffices 
to  drive  the  little  craft  at  a  speed  of  34  knots — nearly  39I 
miles — per  hour,  a  speed  which  had  never  been  attained 
upon  the  water  before. 

The  possibilities  of  the  turbine  were  impressed  upon  the 
world  in  a  dramatic  and,  it  must  be  admitted,  in  a  start- 
lingly  conclusive  manner.  The  Turbinia  attended  the 
Great  Naval  Review  at  Spithead  in  1897,  on  the  occasion 
of  Queen  Victoria's  Diamond  Jubilee.  The  little  boat,  as 
she  rode  at  anchor,  did  not  arouse  any  attention,  because 
outwardly  she  resembled  one  hundred  or  more  other  craft 


THE    FIRST    ATLANTIC    TURBINE    LINER 

The  Allan  Greyhound   I'ictorian  driven  by  Parson's  marine  turbines  and  3  propellors. 


AN    HISTORIC    VESSEL 

The  Otaki,  built  by  Denny  Brothers,  of  Dumbarton,  was  the  first  vessel  propelled  by  a 
combination  of  Parson's  turbines  and  reciprocating  engines  with  triple  screws. 


THE    PROPELLING    MACHINERY  45 

of  a  similar  size.  She  certainly  did  not  occasion  a  second 
thought  among  the  vast  concourse  of  naval  engineers  of 
all  nationalities  who  were  present.  For  some  reason  or 
other,  the  Turbinia  got  out  of  her  position,  and  entered 
the  long  sea  lane  between  the  serried  rows  of  naval  vessels. 
Two  of  the  fastest  torpedo  boats  patrolling  the  lines  were 
dispatched  after  her  at  full  speed,  to  drive  her  back.  But, 
to  the  astonishment  of  the  crews  of  the  pursuers  and  those 
on  the  battleships  who  watched  the  incident,  the  Turbinia 
proved  more  than  a  match  for  the  speedy  torpedo  boats. 
She  raced  away,  showing  them  a  clean  stern.  The  pursuers 
crowded  on  every  ounce  of  steam,  and  although  proud  of 
the  speed  which  their  boats  could  attain,  the  interloper, 
instead  of  being  overhauled,  drew  farther  and  farther  away. 

It  was  a  sensational  surprise,  and  complete  in  its  effect. 
Every  one  wanted  to  know  the  name  of  the  wonderful 
vessel  which  could  romp  away  so  easily  from  the  fastest 
boats  in  the  British  Navy.  When  they  heard  that  turbines 
were  responsible  for  the  speed,  they  asked  what  the  turbine 
was.  It  was  not  mere  idle  curiosity,  but  was  prompted 
by  expert  engineers  who  prided  themselves  that  they  knew 
as  much  about  speed  as  was  possible  at  the  time.  The 
Turbinia  and  her  new  engines  leaped  from  obscurity  to 
become  the  most  prominent  topic  of  conversation  in 
technical  circles  between  the  two  Poles. 

Still,  it  was  an  uphill  struggle  for  the  inventor  and  his 
supporters  to  overcome  the  prejudice  and  extreme  prudence 
characteristic  of  the  shipowner  and  shipbuilder.  A  com- 
mercial trial  had  to  be  made.  In  this,  as  in  other  radical 
developments  in  marine  matters,  Great  Britain  led  the  way. 
An  enterprising  Scottish  firm  of  shipowners  gave  a  con- 
tract for  a  Clyde  passenger  steamer  to  the  eminent  Dum- 
barton firm  of  Denny  Brothers.  The  record  of  this  vessel, 
the  King  Edward,  completely  convinced  the  sceptics.  She 
runs  at  her  designed  speed  of  20  knots — nearly  25  miles — 
per  hour  with  ease,  is  remarkably  steady,  and  the  bogey 
of  vibration,  which  was  held  in  many  quarters  to  be 
inevitably  connected  with  speed,  was  effectively  disposed  of. 


46    STEAMSHIP    CONQUEST   OF    THE    WORLD 

The  broad  working  principles  of  the  Parsons  turbine  are 
exceedingly  simple.  There  is  a  spindle  on  which  rings 
of  blades,  or  vanes,  are  mounted,  these  rings  being  spaced 
equidistantly  apart.  This  section  of  the  mechanism  is 
known  as  the  "rotor,"  from  the  fact  that  it  is  the  rotating 
member.  The  shaft  and  rings  of  blades  revolve  in  a  circular 
chest,  or  drum,  in  such  a  way  that  there  is  only  just 
sufficient  clearance  between  the  tips  of  the  moving  blades 
and  the  inner  wall  of  the  drum.  In  the  latter,  rows  of 
similar  vanes  are  disposed  radially,  and  attached  to  the 
wall  of  the  drum.  These  rings  likewise  are  spaced  equi- 
distantly, so  that  the  blades  of  the  drum  fit  into  the  spaces 
between  the  rings  of  blades  on  the  rotor.  Consequently, 
when  the  whole  is  set  up,  and  counting  from  one  end, 
fixed  rings  of  blades  attached  to  the  casing,  or  "slator," 
as  it  is  called,  because  it  is  the  stationary  member,  alternate 
with  the  moving  rings  of  blades  on  the  rotor.  Lengthwise 
these  blades  are  straight,  and  project  at  right  angles  from 
the  surface  of  the  rotor  and  stator,  but  sectionally  they  are 
curved,  so  that  each  blade  represents  a  kind  of  scoop. 
Steam  is  admitted  at  one  end  of  the  drum,  and  as  it  is 
driven  through  the  blades  and  expands  it  causes  the  rotor 
to  revolve. 

After  the  practical  success  of  the  King  Edivard,  the 
installation  of  steam  turbines  upon  vessels  proceeded  apace. 
This  development  was  influenced  materially  by  the  success 
of  the  British  Admiralty  with  the  engine.  Cross-channel 
steamers  adopted  the  idea,  and  their  experience  definitely 
confirmed  the  statements  advanced  by  the  advocates  of 
the  system.  Then,  in  order  to  obtain  comparative  technical 
data  concerning  the  efficiency,  economy,  and  so  forth, 
respecting  the  two  systems  of  propulsion,  twin  ships  of 
the  same  dimensions,  displacement  and  design — as  like  as 
two  peas — were  built,  one  being  fitted  with  reciprocating 
engines  and  the  other  with  turbines,  to  run  side  by  side  in 
the  self-same  services.  The  first  experiment  in  this  direc- 
tion was  made  in  connection  with  two  vessels  engaged  in 
the  Irish  Sea  traftic  between  Heysham  and  Belfast,  while 


THE    PROPELLING    MACHINERY  47 

the  most  notable  was  in  connection  with  the  Cunard 
Atlantic  liners,  Caronia  and  Carmania.  In  this  way  incon- 
trovertible comparative  information  was  secured  respecting 
the  two  systems,  which  proved  of  incalculable  value  to  those 
engaged  in  the  exploitation  of  the  invention. 

In  the  earliest  types  only  one  turbine — the  high  pressure 
— ^was  used,  but  it  was  found  that  the  steam,  when  it 
was  expelled,  had  by  no  means  completed  the  whole  of 
its  useful  work.  Another  turbine  was  introduced  (for 
purposes  of  distinction  known  as  the  low-pressure  turbine), 
which  is  operated  by  the  steam  issuing  from  the  first,  or 
high-pressure,  turbine.  The  former  is  of  far  greater 
dimensions  than  the  latter,  owing  to  the  increased  length 
of  its  blades.  By  the  time  the  steam  emerges  from  this 
chest  it  retains  very  little  energy,  the  pressure  being  only 
about  ten  pounds  per  square  inch,  or  nearly  half  as  much 
again  as  that  of  the  atmosphere. 

The  great  advantage  of  the  reciprocating  engine  is  that 
it  runs  as  easily  backwards  as  it  does  forwards:  in  other 
words,  it  is  reversible,  which  is  a  useful  feature  for  moving 
astern.  In  the  case  of  the  steam  turbine,  however,  reversi- 
bility is  impossible  with  a  single  plant.  Consequently,  for 
reversing  purposes  another  turbine  has  to  be  introduced, 
and  reserved  purely  and  simply  for  backing  the  ship. 

After  a  little  experience  it  was  found  that,  although  the 
steam  turbine  was  unrivalled  in  economy  when  travelling 
at  the  highest  speeds,  it  became  somewhat  more  expensive 
than  its  older  rival  when  the  speed  was  reduced  below  a 
certain  limit.  Further  research  work  was  carried  out  to 
ascertain  the  practicability  of  combining  the  two  systems, 
so  as  to  secure  the  greatest  advantages  of  both,  and  the 
defects  of  neither.  After  prolonged  experiments  in  this 
direction  success  was  achieved. 

The  steam  turbine  owes  its  introduction  to  the  Atlantic 
steamship  traffic  to  the  enterprise  of  the  Allan  Line.  This 
company  has  played  a  very  important  part  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  steamship.  Brought  into  being  for  the  express 
purpose  of  cultivating  direct  trading  relationship  between 


48    STEAMSHIP    CONQUEST   OF    THE    WORLD 

Great  Britain  and  Canada,  the  Allan  Line  has  always  been 
foremost  in  the  adoption  of  far-reaching  improvements 
in  trans-Atlantic  travel.  When  it  entered  the  Atlantic 
arena  in  1819,  its  first  vessel  was  a  little  brigantine,  Jean, 
of  some  169  tons,  fn  the  late  'forties  it  abandoned  wood 
in  favour  of  iron,  and  in  1881  it  introduced  steel  to  the 
same  waters  with  the  Buenos  Ayrean.  When  the  marine 
engineers  announced  that  bilge  keels  would  minimise  the 
bugbear  of  rolling  and  thus  conduce  to  the  comfort  of 
the  passengers,  the  Allan  Line  did  not  hesitate;  it  brought 
out  the  Parisian,  with  bilge  keels,  in  1881,  and  this  was  the 
first  vessel  to  cross  the  Atlantic  so  fitted. 

Accordingly,  it  is  not  surprising  to  learn  that  the  Allan 
Line,  after  following  the  developments  of  the  turbine  with 
cross-channel  and  other  similar  boats,  decided  upon  a  huge 
step  forward.  In  1905  they  brought  out  the  Virginian  and 
a  sister  ship,  the  Victorian.  Each  vessel  is  540  feet  in 
length,  of  12,000  tons,  and  is  propelled  by  three  screws 
driven  by  turbines.  These  two  ships  rank  among  the  finest 
engaged  in  the  Canadian  trade,  and  they  have  indulged  in 
friendly  rivalry  in  the  matter  of  establishing  records.  So 
far  the  honours  have  rested  with  the  Victorian,  which  has 
reduced  the  North  Atlantic  sea  passage  between  Liverpool 
and  Rimouski  to  a  few  hours  over  five  and  a  half  days. 
These  turbine  vessels  have  proved  so  popular  with  the 
travelling  public  that  their  owners  decided  upon  two 
additional  ships,  each  600  feet  in  length  and  of  17,000  tons, 
driven  by  the  latest  type  of  quadruple  screw  turbine 
machinery  with  a  speed  of  19  knots  per  hour.  Another 
conspicuous  feature  of  these  vessels  which  is  somewhat 
new  to  the  Atlantic  trade  is  the  cruiser  stern,  which  hitherto 
has  been  peculiar  to  war  vessels.  This  design  not  only 
secures  additional  protection  to  the  main  steering  gear,  but 
adds  to  the  stability  of  the  vessel  at  sea.  When  the  Grand 
Trunk  Pacific  Railway  ordered  its  twin  ships.  Prince 
Rupert  and  Prince  George,  for  the  Pacific  service  between 
Seattle  and  Prince  Rupert  from  the  yards  of  Swan,  Hunter 
&  Wigham  Richardson,  this  type  of  stern  was  designed 


A    SHIP    WHICH    CARRIES    RAILWAY    TRAINS 

The  D}-ottning  Victoria,  which  plies  between  the  German  and  Swedish  railways 

as  a  ferry.     The  main  deck  is  fitted  with  railway  tracks  on  which 

the  trains  are  run  and  made  fast  for  the  sea  journey. 


Piiotoi  by  pcrunssion  of  Swan,  ilnntcr  and  M'igliain  Ricliardson,  Ltd.] 
A    PALATIAL    P.VCIFIC    COASTAL    LINER 

The  Prince  Rupert,  running  between  Prince  Rupert  and  Seattle.     This  boat  is  fitted  with 
a  cruiser  stern,  which  design  is  now  being  introduced  upon  the  Atlantic. 


THE    PROPELLING    MACHINERY  49 

and  incorporated  by  the  builders,  and  it  may  be  pointed 
out  that,  in  addition  to  the  foregoing  advantages,  an  extra 
knot  per  hour  was  obtained. 

After  the  triple  screw,  came  what  is  known  as  the  com- 
bined system  of  propulsion,  wherein  the  reciprocating 
engines  exhaust  their  steam  from  the  low-pressure  cylinders 
into  a  low-pressure  turbine,  in  order  to  squeeze  the  utter- 
most fraction  of  useful  energy  from  the  gas.  The  advan- 
tages of  this  system  were  brought  out  very  strikingly  by 
the  Otaki,  built  by  Denny  Brothers  for  trading  between 
Great  Britain  and  New  Zealand,  involving  a  round  trip  of 
26,000  miles. 

The  crowning  vindication  of  the  steam  turbine  came  with 
the  construction  of  the  two  Cunard  flyers,  and  more  par- 
ticularly, perhaps,  with  the  Mauretania,  which,  by  her 
remarkable  records,  has  demonstrated  most  conclusively 
what  turbines  can  do  in  regard  to  fast  travelling  for  com- 
mercial purposes.  The  creators  of  the  wonderful  machinery 
with  which  this  liner  is  equipped,  the  Wallsend  Slipway 
and  Engineering  Company  of  Tyneside,  were  successful  in 
securing  as  guiding  spirit  in  their  design  the  services  of 
one  engineer,  Mr.  Andrew  Laing,  who  had  been  respons- 
ible in  a  great  measure  for  the  successes  of  four  previous 
famous  Atlantic  record-breakers — the  Umbria,  Etruria, 
Campania  and  Lucania — during  his  association  with  the 
Fairfield  Engineering  Company  on  the  Clyde. 

One  noteworthy  feature  in  connection  with  the  produc- 
tion of  the  engines  of  this  giant  may  be  noted.  They  were 
designed  and  built  hard  by  the  spot  where  the  inventor, 
some  twenty  years  previously,  had  displayed  such  tireless 
energy  and  patience  in  the  evolution  of  the  little  Turhinia, 
which  startled  the  whole  world  in  1897.  To-day  the  little 
craft  responsible  for  this  revolution  in  the  mercantile 
marine  is  enjoying  a  well-earned  rest  and  place  of  honour 
within  the  works  of  her  creators,  and  close  to  the  organisa- 
tion which  was  responsible  for  the  birth  of  her  biggest 
daughter  only  ten  years  later.  The  historic  Turhinia,  how- 
ever, had  a  narrow  escape  from  making  acquaintance  with 

£ 


50    STEAMSHIP    CONQUEST   OF    THE    WORLD 

the  bottom  of  the  Tyne.  She  was  moored  alongside  the 
yard  wall  of  her  owners,  when  a  ship  launched  from  the 
opposite  side  of  the  river  blundered  into  her.  The  tiny 
Turbina  was  caught  almost  amidships,  and  her  forward 
part  was  bent  round  about  45  degrees.  She  was  put  into 
one  of  the  dry  docks  of  Swan,  Hunter,  &  Wigham  Richard- 
son, where  the  ship  surgeons  cut  the  craft  in  twain  and 
rebuilt  the  forward  end.  They  then  brought  up  their  huge 
floating  crane,  the  Titan,  which  picked  up  the  little  vessel 
and  carefully  deposited  her  on  the  quay  of  her  owners  to 
secure  her  from  further  harm. 

The  Cunard  greyhounds  are  driven  by  turbines  purely 
and  simply.  As  speed  was  the  governing  consideration 
for  their  construction,  no  expense,  labour,  experiment  or 
effort  were  spared  to  produce  the  best  humanly  possible. 
I  have  referred  already  to  the  elaborate  experiments  which 
were  carried  out  with  the  small  launch  at  Wallsend  to 
secure  the  best  possible  results  from  the  engines  and  pro- 
pellers, before  a  line  was  committed  to  paper  in  connection 
with  the  design. 

The  power  unit  comprises  six  turbines,  the  ship  being 
driven  by  four  propellers.  This  installation  is  divided 
into  three  sections.  There  are  two  high-pressure  turbines 
driving  the  wing,  or  outermost,  propellers,  one  on  either 
side,  these  screws  being  set  back  80  feet  from  the  stern 
propellers,  which  are  driven  by  two  low-pressure  turbines, 
while  the  latter  two  propellers  carry  a  second  turbine  each, 
for  moving  astern.  The  high-pressure  turbines  are  each 
placed  in  a  water-tight  compartment,  while  the  low-pressure 
and  two  astern  turbines  are  accommodated  in  a  common 
central  water-tight  space.  The  advantage  is  obvious.  It 
is  scarcely  probable  that  an  accident  would  affect  both 
high-pressure  turbines,  as  they  are  disposed  on  either  side 
of  the  vessel.  Should  the  liner's  hull  be  pierced  and  let 
in  the  water,  the  vessel  could  always  get  home  on  the 
remaining  three  screws.  It  is  difficult  to  conceive  any 
mishap,  short  of  the  total  destruction  of  the  underwater 
stern  of  the  ship,  whereby  the  vessel  could  be   rendered 


THE    PROPELLING    MACHINERY  51 

as  helpless  as  a  log,  owing  to  the  ingenuity  of  the  sub- 
division of  the  hull  by  the  bulkheads  at  this  vital  spot. 

As  may  be  imagined,  owing  to  the  immense  size  and 
speed  of  the  vessel,  everything  pertaining  to  the  propelling 
machinery  exceeded  anything  attempted  before,  so  that 
the  builders  were  compelled  to  carry  out  pioneer  work  in 
every  direction.  Some  idea  of  the  dimensions  of  the 
integral  parts  of  the  propelling  installation  may  be 
gathered  from  sizes  and  weights.  The  high-pressure 
turbine  measures  8  feet  in  diameter,  while  its  rotor  weighs 
no  less  than  72  tons.  The  low-pressure  turbine  has  a 
diameter  of  1 1  feet  8  inches,  and  its  rotor,  which  turns  the 
scale  at  126  tons,  is  fitted  with  vanes  ranging  from  8  to  22 
inches  in  length.  The  astern  turbine  measures  8  feet  8 
inches  in  diameter,  the  length  of  the  blades  varying  from 
2  inches  at  one  end  to  8  inches  at  the  other. 

No  expense  was  spared  in  the  fashioning  of  the 
weightiest  essential  parts.  Seeing  that  the  rotors  upon 
which  the  blades  are  mounted  have  to  withstand  such  heavy 
work  and  high  speed — the  revolutions  range  up  to  180  per 
minute — a  special  method  of  fashioning  them  was  followed, 
in  order  to  secure  a  metal  which  was  thoroughly  homo- 
geneous. The  rotor  was  cast  in  a  solid  block,  about  120 
tons  of  steel  being  run  into  a  mould  some  6  feet  in  diameter. 
While  the  metal  was  still  molten  the  mass  was  subjected 
to  the  enormous  pressure  of  12,000  tons  per  square  inch; 
a  power  sufficient  to  compress  molecules  of  steel  tightly 
and  closely  together  in  a  manner  otherwise  quite  imprac- 
ticable. Consequently,  a  fracture  from  faults  in  the  metal 
itself  is  rendered  virtually  impossible.  When  the  turbines 
are  running  at  full  speed  the  outer  tip  of  the  blades  have 
a  velocity  of  about  10,000  to  11,000  feet  per  minute.  In 
other  words,  if  this  revolving  speed  were  resolved  into  a 
straight  line  across  country,  the  tip  of  a  blade  would  travel 
about  2  miles  in  the  space  of  a  minute — 120  miles  an  hour 
— and  this  speed  has  to  be  maintained  for  about  108  hours 
during  the  trans-Atlantic  journev. 

When  the  turbine  first  made  its  appearance,  the  practice 

E   2 


52     STEAMSHIP    CONQUEST   OF    THE    WORLD 

was  to  fix  each  blade  separately  in  its  groove  in  the  rotor 
and  in  the  stator.  With  such  a  huge  plant  as  that  carried 
upon  the  Mauretania  this  would  have  been  quite  impos- 
sible, seeing  that  there  are  over  800,000  blades  in  the  six 
turbines.  A  novel  system  of  building  them  up  in  segments 
was  evolved,  ten  of  these  segments  forming  a  complete 
ring.  For  this  blading  work  the  builders  devised  special 
machinery,  which  ranks  as  one  of  the  most  complete  and 
perfect  installations  of  its  class  in  the  world. 

The  propeller  shafts  are  each  30  feet  2  inches  long  by 
22 J  inches  in  diameter,  they  are  hollow  with  a  10  inch- 
diameter  hole,  and  each  carries  one  propeller  with  three 
manganese  bronze  blades.  The  propellers  are  built  up, 
i.  e.  the  blades  are  bolted  to  a  steel  boss  by  steel  studs  and 
manganese  bronze  nuts.  This  built-up  system  is  prefer- 
able to  the  solid  casting,  although  the  latter  is  practised 
extensively  in  small  passenger  boats,  tramps  and  freighters, 
since,  should  a  blade  become  damaged,  it  can  be  replaced 
quickly  and  easily  without  detaching  the  whole  propeller. 
One  of  the  great  advantages  arising  from  the  use  of  man- 
ganese bronze  for  the  blades  is  that  the  metal  does  not 
corrode  quickly  in  sea  water.  Steel  and  iron  propellers 
within  a  short  space  of  time  become  honeycombed  by  corro- 
sion, and  then  break  very  readily.  Manganese  bronze, 
however,  is  somewhat  expensive — averaging  about  ;^ioo 
— $500 — per  ton,  so  that  a  propeller  which  weighs  20  tons 
or  more  represents  a  costly  item  in  itself. 

The  steam  for  these  mighty  turbines  is  raised  in  23 
double-ended  and  2  single-ended  boilers,  distributed  in 
four  rooms  and  placed  athwart  the  ship  in  rows  of  three 
each.  It  would  have  been  possible  to  have  set  them  in 
rows  of  five  each,  had  not  the  interests  of  safety  demanded 
otherwise.  Instead  of  the  boiler-rooms  proper  stretching 
from  wall  to  wall  of  the  ship,  either  side  of  each  boiler- 
room  is  flanked  by  a  longitudinal  bulkhead,  and  the 
interior  of  these  spaces  serve  as  coal  bunkers.  This  wise 
arrangement  virtually  provides  these  vessels  with  a  double 
skin  for  about  two-thirds  of  their  lengths.     Consequently, 


a:  f: 


<   0- 


THE    PROPELLING    MACHINERY  53 

should  the  hull  of  the  ship  be  pierced  below  the  water-line 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  boiler-rooms,  the  danger  of  the  stoke- 
hold being  flooded  is  removed,  unless  the  invader  drove 
its  way  so  deeply  into  the  liner  as  to  break  down  the 
boiler-room  bulkhead.  This  is  such  a  remote  contingency, 
however,  that  it  need  not  be  entertained. 

The  double-ended  boilers  each  measure  22  feet  in  length 
by  17J  feet  in  diameter.  Each  has  eight  furnaces,  four  at 
either  end.  The  single-ended  boilers  are  of  the  same 
diameter,  but  only  12  feet  long,  and,  as  the  description 
indicates,  are  provided  with  only  four  furnaces  at  one  end. 
Each  double-ended  boiler  in  its  empty  condition  weighs 
no  tons,  and  when  charged  with  water  and  fuel  the  weight 
all  told  is  approximately  180  tons.  When  the  liner  is 
travelling  at  full  speed  and  the  whole  battery  of  boilers 
is  working  at  top  pressure,  the  192  furnaces  eat  up  the 
coal  at  the  rate  of  a  ton  about  every  ij  minutes,  so  that 
some  idea  of  the  price  of  speed  may  be  obtained.  The 
bunkers  are  able  to  carry  6000  tons.  Just  what  this  means 
may  be  realised  from  the  fact  that,  in  order  to  coal  up  the 
Lusitania  and  Mauretania  every  time  they  leave  Liverpool 
or  New  York,  22  trains,  each  hauling  30  trucks,  and  each 
wagon  carrying  10  tons,  have  to  draw  into  the  port  and 
dump  their  loads  into  the  vessel's  bunkers. 

The  steam  is  raised  to  a  pressure  of  195  pounds  per 
square  inch,  and  is  led  into  the  high-pressure  turbines. 
After  it  has  accomplished  its  useful  work  in  these  engines, 
it  is  led  through  a  valve  either  into  the  low-pressure  tur- 
bines or  direct  into  the  condensers.  The  valve  through 
which  the  steam  issues  is  a  massive  piece  of  work  in  itself. 
A  man  six  feet  high  may  stand  in  the  pipe,  and  yet  leave 
three  inches  clearance  between  the  crown  of  his  head  and 
the  inside  of  the  valve.  By  the  time  the  steam  has  emerged 
from  the  low-pressure  turbine  it  is  in  a  very  exhausted 
condition,  containing  practically  no  energy  for  further 
work.  But  it  is  not  permitted  to  escape  into  the  outer 
air.  It  can  be  restored  to  water,  passed  back  into  the 
boilers,  and  re-vaporised.     In   addition  to  recovering  the 


54    STEAMSHIP    CONQUEST    OF    THE    WORLD 

water  from  the  steam  after  it  has  been  exhausted  from  the 
turbines,  the  condensers  perform  another  very  important 
function.  This  is  the  maintenance  of  the  vacuum,  whereby 
a  great  increase  in  power  is  secured,  as  the  pressure  of 
the  steam  is  raised  by  the  reduction  of  the  atmospheric 
pressure. 

The  condenser  in  reality  is  a  gigantic  still  having  a 
network  of  small  pipes,  through  which  circulates  con- 
tinually a  stream  of  cold  water.  The  exhausted  steam  led 
from  the  low-pressure  or  the  high-pressure  turbine,  as  the 
case  may  be,  becomes  condensed  under  the  chilling  effect 
of  the  water  playing  upon  the  pipes.  The  water  employed 
for  the  cooling  operation  is  drawn  direct  from  the  ocean, 
and  driven  steadily  and  constantly  through  the  condensers 
by  means  of  powerful  pumps.  I  have  often  heard  passen- 
gers, when  looking  over  the  taffrail  of  a  vessel,  express 
curiosity  concerning  the  stream  of  water  which  pours  out 
from  the  vessel  amidships  on  either  side.  This  is  the 
water  ejected  from  the  condensers  after  it  has  completed 
its  chilling  work.  Upon  such  a  ship  as  the  Lusitania, 
Mauretania  or  Olympic  the  condensers  are  of  huge  propor- 
tions, and  the  volume  of  sea  water  drawn  from  the  Atlantic 
to  cool  the  spent  steam  from  the  engines  is  stupendous. 
It  is  stated  that  every  minute  of  the  day  and  night  on  the 
Cunarders  over  65,000  gallons  of  water  are  driven  through 
these  stills — a  colossal  total  of  93,600,000  gallons  every 
twenty-four  hours.  If  this  were  fresh  water,  it  would  pro- 
vide each  of  the  7,000,000  persons  comprising  the  population 
of  London  with  nearly  13J  gallons  a  day. 

To  keep  the  Mauretania  steadily  developing  between  68,000 
and  70,000  horse-power  to  maintain  the  average  hourly 
speed  of  25^  knots,  or  nearly  30  miles,  10,000  tons  of  steam 
have  to  be  raised  and  driven  every  day  through  the  turbines 
at  a  speed  varying  between  200  and  250  feet  per  second. 
The  consumption  of  air  to  bring  about  the  combustion  of 
the  coal  in  the  furnaces  is  equally  astonishing.  The 
voyager  has  probably  observed  the  bewildering  array  of 
capacious  cowl  ventilators  scattered  over  the  topmost  deck. 


A  I     U>.M.  ii;i  I.I-.      i  I    \  M, 


This  illustration  conveys  a  striking  impression  of  the  immense  size  of  the  ISlauretania's  funnels 
Laid  on  their  sides  two  streams  of  vehicles  passed  through  abreast  with  ease. 


rhotos  by  II :  /'arrj',  Soutli  Shields] 

AN    AVKNLE    OF    BOILKKS 

The  huge  steam  generators,  each  weigliing  no  tons  empty.  f)r  the  Manyciania, 
set  up  in  the  erecting  shops  for  inspection. 


AFTER    CRADLE    OF    THE    MAURllTAXIA 
The  finely-slmped  stern  rests  on  a  collapsible  timber  structure  standing  en  the  sliding  ways. 


Photos  by  conrhsy  of  the  "  Shipi'iiiiiior  "\ 

TrrAN    CRANE    I.IFTINC.    A    BOILER    ON    HOARD 
The  weighty  mass  of  no  tons  is  set  dead  in  position  by  the  aid  of  this  powerful  appliance. 


THE    PROPELLING    MACHINERY  55 

and  perhaps  has  speculated  as  to  their  purposes.  They 
convey  air  into  the  stokeholds  of  the  vessels,  25  pounds 
of  air  being  required  to  bring  about  the  combustion  of 
I  pound  of  coal.  Assuming  14  cubic  feet  to  the  pound, 
this  represents  a  tax  upon  the  atmosphere  for  oxygen  to 
the  extent  of  784,000,000  cubic  feet,  or  56,000,000  pounds, 
in  the  course  of  the  twenty-four  hours.  It  is  lucky  for  the 
marine  engineer  that  on  the  broad  Atlantic  there  is  an 
ample  supply  of  water  and  air  to  keep  the  machinery  going. 

Yet  the  propelling  machinery  is  only  one  element, 
although  the  most  important,  for  which  steam  has  to  be 
raised.  In  addition  there  are  no  less  than  66  other  engines 
demanding  energy,  the  work  of  these  auxiliaries  being  as 
varied  as  their  number.  There  are  air  and  water  pumps 
for  all  sorts  of  purposes :  oil-pumps  to  keep  the  turbines 
thoroughly  lubricated;  pumps  for  the  supply  of  power  to 
the  water-tight  doors  to  close  the  various  compartments, 
should  the  liner  be  menaced  with  an  accident;  flushing, 
fire-extinguishing  pumps,  and  so  on. 

In  the  Olympic  the  combination  system  is  highly 
interesting.  In  this  instance  the  turbine  is  of  the  low- 
pressure  type,  and  is  designed  to  work  with  the  steam  after 
it  has  done  its  utmost  in  the  reciprocating  engines.  These 
engines,  of  the  quadruple  expansion  type,  receive  the  gas  at 
a  pressure  of  215  pounds  per  square  inch.  By  the  time  they 
have  finished  with  the  steam  its  pressure  has  been  reduced 
to  9  pounds  per  square  inch.  The  turbine  picks  it  up  at 
this  juncture,  and  when  the  steam  passes  from  this  unit 
into  the  condensers  it  has  been  expanded  down  to  i  pound. 
In  this  instance  the  reciprocating  engines  develop  30,000 
indicated  horse-power,  while  the  turbine  in  its  turn  yields 
no  less  than  16,000  horse-power.  With  this  combined 
energy  of  46,000  horse-power  the  three  propellers  can  drive 
the  ship  at  an  average  speed  of  about  22^  knots  per  hour. 

As  may  be  imagined,  the  Olympic  being  the  largest 
ship  in  service  in  191 2,  some  huge  weights  are  to  be  found 
in  the  engine-room.  The  crank  shaft  of  each  of  the  two 
sets  of  quadruple  expansion  engines  weighs  no  less  than 


56    STEAMSHIP    CONQUEST   OF    THE    WORLD 

ii8  tons,  while  the  heaviest  cylinder  tips  the  beam  at  50 
tons.  Each  of  the  wing  propellers  weighs  38  tons,  while 
the  central,  or  turbine,  screw  is  of  22  tons.  The  total 
weight  of  the  low-pressure  turbine  is  410  tons,  of  which 
the  rotor  represents  130  tons  and  the  casing  163  tons. 
These  engines  demand  the  combined  services  of  159  fur- 
naces raising  steam  in  24  double  and  5  single  ended 
boilers.  As  may  be  supposed,  an  extensive  staff  is  required 
to  keep  the  engines  going,  no  less  tlTan  322  men  being 
employed  in  the  stokehold,  in  shifts  of  four  hours'  duty 
with  eight  hours'  rest.  It  may  be  mentioned  that  the  num- 
bers alone  of  those  responsible  for  keeping  the  Olympic 
steaming  represent  one-eighth  of  the  passengers  carried, 
and  about  one-eleventh  of  the  total  population  which  the 
ship  is  able  to  accommodate.  In  fact,  in  this  White  Star 
liner  nearly  thrice  the  number  of  men  are  required  to 
attend  to  the  engines  and  furnaces  as  the  total  number  of 
passengers  which  the  Britannia  was  able  to  carry,  while 
the  black  squad  outnumbers  the  complete  roll  of  passengers 
and  the  crew  of  the  first  Atlantic  liner. 


CHAPTER    V 

THE   LAUNCH   AND   TRIAL   TRIP 

When  the  final  rivet  has  been  driven  home,  completing 
the  steel  shell,  the  shipbuilder  is  faced  with  his  most 
critical,  anxious  and  difficult  task — the  transference  of  the 
inert  hull  from  dry  land  to  the  water.  In  Great  Britain 
this  operation  is  carried  out  so  successfully  and  smoothly, 
and  with  such  an  immunity  from  accident,  that  the  average 
spectator  is  apt  to  regard  the  operation  as  comparatively 
simple,  though  he  agrees  that  it  forms  an  impressive  spec- 
tacle. As  a  matter  of  fact  it  is  the  most  wonderful  phase 
in  the  whole  creation  of  the  vessel,  particularly  in  the  case 
of  a  modern  titan. 

The  preparations  for  a  launch  are  of  a  most  comprehen- 
sive character.  Nothing  is  left  to  chance.  Every  detail  is 
checked  and  counter-checked.  While  the  ship  is  assuming 
its  form  in  its  cradle,  a  launching  diagram  is  being  pre- 
pared by  men  of  long  experience,  and  they  prepare  a  com- 
plete schedule  bristling  with  particulars.  Every  effort  is 
made  to  see  that  the  actual  operation  coincides  with  this 
programme  to  the  uttermost  limit. 

The  date  of  the  launch  is  indicated,  together  with  the 
hour,  this  factor  being  governed  by  climatic  and  other 
conditions  over  which  mankind  has  no  control.  The  con- 
dition of  the  water  in  the  river,  the  state  of  the  tides  and 
currents  are  set  out,  these  deductions  being  prepared  from 
tables  available  for  the  purpose.  Weather  conditions 
exercise  a  far-reaching  influence.  The  hull  towers  high 
out  of  the  water,  and  offers  enormous  resistance  to  an 
unfavourable  wind.  It  is  quite  unmanageable  until  the 
tugs  can  be  attached  to  tow  her,  and  it  stands  to  reason 
that  if  a  heavy  gale  be  bearing  broadside  upon  the  ship's 

57 


58    STEAMSHIP    CONQUEST    OF    THE    WORLD 

massive  length  and  height,  the  tugs  would  find  it  extremely 
difficult  to  get  hold  of  her  and  thereby  bring  her  under 
control.  Often  a  launch  has  been  postponed  owing  to  the 
unpropitious  character  of  the  wind,  or  the  direction  from 
which  it  is  blowing  on  the  day  which  has  been  set  aside 
for  the  committal  of  the  ship  from  land  to  water. 

Similarly,  the  temperature  conditions  are  vital.  If  the 
thermometer  drops  below  a  critical  level  the  launch  becomes 
impossible,  or  at  least  uncertain,  since  the  tallow  required 
for  greasing  the  ways  becomes  congealed,  and  instead  of 
permitting  the  hull  to  slide  downwards  gracefully  into  the 
water,  it  acts  as  a  check.  On  more  than  one  occasion  a 
launch  has  proved  abortive  from  this  reason.  The  hull 
has  started  on  her  journey,  only  to  slow  up  and  stop  before 
she  has  proceeded  many  feet,  and  examination  has  revealed 
the  cause  to  be  the  too  solidified  nature  of  the  grease. 

In  addition,  the  exact  weight  of  the  hull  at  the  launch- 
ing, and  the  manner  in  which  the  various  component 
weights  forming  the  aggregate  are  distributed,  are  shown. 
A  table  is  prepared  also  dealing  \vith  the  exact  acceleration 
of  the  huge  mass,  at  various  intervals,  as  it  glides  down 
the  ways,  together  with  the  moment  when  it  will  come  to 
rest,  its  distance  from  the  ways  and  position  in  the  water- 
way at  that  period.  There  is  also  the  disposition  of  the 
drags  which  check  the  descent  of  the  vessel,  their  weight, 
method  of  action,  and  the  precise  moments  when  they  will 
commence  to  exercise  their  retarding  influences,  in  order  to 
bring  the  ship  to  a  standstill  within  the  distance  allowed. 

There  are  two  calculations  relative  to  a  launch  which 
are  of  extreme  importance.  These  relate  to  what  are  known 
as  "tipping"  and  "lifting"  movements.  At  the  launch 
the  vessel  is  supported  entirely  upon  two  cradles  and  the 
ways,  which  are  described  later.  Now  suppose  the  vessel 
is  being  launched  stern  first.  If,  when  the  latter  part  enters 
the  water,  it  is  buoyed  up  insufficiently,  there  is  a  tendency 
for  the  pressure  on  the  forward  cradle  to  be  relieved,  because 
the  stem  of  the  boat  tries  to  tip  up.  If  this  took  place  it 
might  cause  the  cradle  timbers  to  become  loosened,  so  that 


By  permission  o/Swan,  Hunter  a)id  U'iff/iain  Ricliardson,  Ltd.] 

THK    POWKR    BEHIND    THK    CINARD    FLIERS 

The  four  propellers,  which  con\ert  the  turbine  energy  of  70,000  hor^e-power  into  25^  knots  per  hour. 


THE    LAUNCH    AND    TRIAL   TRIP  59 

when,  a  few  seconds  later,  the  pressure  was  brought  to 
bear  upon  the  forward  cradle  by  the  stern  lifting,  the  stem 
might  come  down  so  heavily  as  to  cause  its  cradle  to 
collapse.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  stern  were  too  buoyant 
it  might  impose  an  enormous  crushing  strain  upon  the 
forward  cradle,  which  would  increase  as  the  hull  slipped 
farther  and  farther  into  the  water,  and  possibly  cause  the 
cradle  to  break  up  before  it  had  completed  its  ordained 
work.  Those  who  witness  a  thrilling  spectacle  such  as  a 
big  launch  affords,  and  which  seems  such  a  straightforward 
operation,  neither  see  nor  hear  anything  of  the  calculating 
work  previously  made  to  ensure  success,  and  which  is  far 
more  remarkable. 

As  a  rule  a  vessel  is  launched  stern  first,  although  some 
yards  adopt  the  practice  of  sending  the  ship  into  the  water 
bow  first.  In  other  instances,  when  the  area  of  water 
available  for  the  reception  of  the  vessel  is  very  limited, 
the  ship  will  be  sent  broadside  down  the  ways.  Such  a 
launch  is  somewhat  more  stirring  from  the  mere  sight- 
seeing point  of  view,  inasmuch  as  the  vessel  strikes  the 
water  at  such  an  angle  that  the  uninitiated  wonder  how 
the  ship  contrives  to  regain  her  even  keel. 

As  the  vessel  grows  within  her  berth  she  is  supported  on 
each  side  by  timber  props,  and  when  the  hull  is  completed 
it  appears  to  be  resting  upon  a  decapitated  forest.  When 
the  vessel  is  ready  to  be  launched  these  supports  are 
removed,  to  permit  the  ship  to  rest  upon  the  launching 
ways.  These  comprise  two  component  parts,  known 
respectively  as  the  ground  ways  and  the  sliding  ways. 
The  ground  ways  are  laid  upon  the  ground,  and  remain 
stationary.  They  resemble  a  massive  wooden  railway, 
extending  from  the  forward  end  of  the  vessel  right  into 
the  water.  The  upper  face  is  rabbeted,  and  upon  this  sur- 
face rest  the  sliding  ways,  which  similarly  extend  the  full 
length  of  the  vessel,  and  these  engage  with  the  rabbet,  or 
flange,  in  the  ground  ways  so  as  to  be  guided  during  their 
descent  into  the  water.  In  some  instances,  instead  of  the 
launchways  being  flat  and   rabbeted,  the  ground  way  is 


6o    STEAMSHIP    CONQUEST   OF    THE    WORLD 

made  concave,  while  the  sliding  way  is  convex,  so  as  to 
fit  into  the  groove  of  the  former. 

The  sliding  ways  are  so  called  because  they  slide  along 
the  groundways,  carrying  the  ship,  which  is  supported 
thereon  throughout  its  entire  length,  into  the  water.  The 
engaging  surfaces  of  the  ways  are  liberally  dressed  with 
tallow,  soft  soap  and  oil,  to  facilitate  the  movement  of  the 
sliding  ways  by  reducing  the  friction. 

When  a  vessel  has  fine  lines  fore  and  aft,  what  are 
known  as  "cradles"  are  built  on  top  of  the  sliding  ways, 
to  support  the  fine  ends  of  the  ship.  These  cradles  are 
formidable  structures  fashioned  from  wooden  baulks,  the 
upper  ends  of  which  are  shaped  to  the  contour  of  the  hull, 
but  are  not  attached  to  it.  In  the  case  of  bluff-ended,  flat- 
bottomed  cargo  boats  the  cradles  are  very  insignificant 
structures. 

The  launch  of  the  Mauretania  on  the  Tyne  was  remark- 
able, because  it  coincided  in  every  particular  with  the 
careful  pre-determined  calculations.  In  this  instance  the 
operation  was  delicate,  owing  to  the  narrow  width  of  the 
river.  Then,  again,  the  weight  of  the  hull  was  enormous ; 
in  fact,  at  that  time  it  was  the  heaviest  hull  ever  launched, 
the  total  weight  of  the  mass  sent  into  the  water  being 
16,800  tons.  Since  then,  this  record  has  been  eclipsed,  as 
when  the  Olympic  was  transferred  from  her  building  berth 
to  the  water  at  Belfast  she  weighed  no  less  than  27,300 
tons,  while  the  German  liner  Imperator  weighed  27,000 
tons. 

The  launching  ways  for  the  Mauretania  at  Wall  send 
were  spaced  25  feet  apart  and  were  635  feet  in  length.  The 
falling  grade  of  the  ways  averaged  about  fV  of  an  inch 
per  foot,  and  at  the  lower  end  they  were  submerged  at 
high  water  to  the  depth  of  7  feet  7  inches.  They  were 
dressed  with  32,536  pounds  of  tallow,  113  gallons  of  train 
oil,  and  3,464  pounds  of  soft  soap. 

When  everything  is  ready  for  the  launch  the  vessel 
rests  entirely  upon  the  ways,  but  is  prevented  from  taking 
to  the  water  prematurely  by  triggers  which  hold  back  the 


THE    LAUNCH    AND    TRIAL   TRIP  6i 

upper,  or  sliding,  launchways.  As  a  rule,  when  these 
triggers  are  released  the  vessel  commences  to  slip  down 
the  gradient  under  her  own  weight.  Still,  the  shipbuilder 
takes  no  chances  of  her  proving  stubborn.  The  lessons 
of  the  Great  Eastern,  which  refused  to  float  upon  the  bosom 
of  the  Thames  until  ;^5o,ooo,  or  $300,000,  had  been  ex- 
pended on  the  launching  operation,  has  been  learned  only 
too  well.  To  guard  against  the  repetition  of  such  a  con- 
tingency, the  shipbuilder  has  devised  an  ingenious  arrange- 
ment whereby  the  vessel  is  given  a  welcome  push,  should 
she  fail  to  start  when  the  triggers  are  released.  This  is 
a  hydraulic  ram,  the  nose  of  which,  when  water  is  admitted 
into  the  cylinder,  exerts  a  pressure  of  several  hundred  tons 
against  the  upper  launching  ways,  thus  sending  them 
downwards.  In  the  case  of  the  Mauretania  several  of  these 
rams  were  placed  in  position,  ready  to  give  the  necessary 
starting  movement  if  the  emergency  arose,  but  owing  to 
the  perfection  and  forethought  bestowed  upon  the  prepara- 
tions their  services  were  not  required.  Once  started,  there 
usually  is  very  little  likelihood  of  the  huge  mass  coming 
to  a  stop  until  she  is  afloat. 

But  an  ungainly  mass  must  not  be  set  in  motion  without 
the  inclusion  of  some  means  of  stopping  her  when  she  has 
become  water-borne.  If  a  vessel  were  dispatched  down 
the  ways  without  restraint,  she  would  keep  going  until 
resistance  and  friction  of  the  water  pulled  her  up.  If  there 
is  plenty  of  space  available  such  a  system  may  be  adopted 
safely,  but  as  a  rule  a  shipyard  is  situated  in  a  congested 
district.  In  Italy,  however,  it  is  usually  the  custom  to 
launch  a  vessel  direct  into  the  sea,  because  the  waters  of 
the  Mediterranean  are  non-tidal,  and  the  builders  need 
only  wait  for  a  smooth  sea  to  achieve  their  object.  In  such 
a  case  the  vessel  is  sent  down  the  ways  and  allowed  to 
travel  through  the  water  until  she  stops,  or  the  tow-ropes 
of  friendly  tugs  are  able  to  pick  her  up.  In  the  case  of 
such  narrow,  busy  waterways  as  the  Clyde  or  the  Tyne 
these  methods  are  quite  impracticable. 

There  are  several  means  whereby  a  ship  may  be  pulled 


62     STEAMSHIP    CONQUEST    OF    THE    WORLD 

up  and  brought  under  control  when  afloat.  Sometimes 
anchors  are  buried  in  the  ground  at  regular  intervals  and 
connected  to  the  hull  by  hawsers.  One  after  another  the 
latter  become  taut,  and  thereby  gradually  break  the  advance 
of  the  ship.  Another  system,  which  is  practised  often  at 
the  Wallsend  shipyards  and  elsewhere,  is  to  attach  the 
ship  at  one  side  only  by  means  of  a  hawser  to  an  anchor 
buried  near  by  in  the  river's  bank.  When  the  ship  is 
water-borne  and  is  rushing  onward  the  hawser  becomes 
taut  gradually,  so  that  the  ship  not  only  finds  her  mad 
rush  arrested,  but  she  is  slewed  round  in  mid-stream  as 
well.  Occasionally  a  big  shield  of  timber  is  built  across 
the  stern-post  of  the  vessel.  This  offers  considerable  resist- 
ance to  the  water,  and  helps  to  bring  the  hull  gently  to 
a  standstill.  Yet  another  method  of  bringing  the  vessel 
when  afloat  to  a  state  of  rest  is  to  attach  hawsers,  fixed  to 
the  hull  at  certain  points  by  means  of  eye-bolts,  and  the 
other  ends  to  huge  timber  wedges  placed  between  heavy 
wooden  grips.  As  the  pull  becomes  successively  imposed 
upon  these  hawsers  they  drag  the  wedges  tighter  and 
tighter  between  the  grips,  and  thus  pull  the  vessel  up. 

A  highly  effective  system  was  adopted  to  check  the 
Mauretania  when  she  slid  down  the  ways  at  Wallsend,  and 
which  is  utilised  when  launching  large  vessels  from  these 
yards.  On  either  side  of  the  vessel  in  the  berth  are  disposed 
coils  of  chains  and  other  weights.  Each  drag  weighs  from 
80  to  100  tons,  and  they  are  placed  certain  distances  apart. 
The  chains  are  piled  in  a  special  manner  to  form  a  large 
square,  and  around  the  upper  side  of  each  coil  a  heavy 
wire  hawser  is  passed  and  attached  to  a  cable  fixed  to  the 
side  of  the  hull  by  means  of  an  eye-bolt.  As  the  ship 
slides  down  the  ways,  the  first  cable  in  due  course  becomes 
tightened,  and  pulls  on  the  coil  to  which  it  is  anchored. 
It  cannot  drag  the  mass  of  chain  along  the  ground  imme- 
diately, because  the  connection  is  made  to  the  upper  side 
of  the  heap.  The  mass  must  first  be  turned  over  com- 
pletely, which  action  in  itself  acts  as  a  brake,  while  when 
the  heap  has  been  inverted  the  square  becomes  elongated 


AFl.OAl-   : 

The  bow  of  the  I iJipi'yatoy]w>.V  leaving  the  ways.     The  forward  cradle  is  collapslncr,  as 
tlie  vessel  is  almost  biiDvaiit. 


THE    LAUNCH    AND    TRIAL   TRIP  63 

into  a  loop  before  it  is  dragged  along  the  ground.  Accord- 
ingly, the  instant  the  hawser  connected  to  a  pile  of  chains 
becomes  taut,  a  gradually  increasing  check  is  produced. 
When  this  retarding  action  is  stepped,  one  pile  after 
another  being  brought  into  action,  the  sum  of  the  drag 
represents  a  powerful  brake. 

The  actual  launch  usually  does  not  take  more  than  a 
minute  or  so.  The  naming  ceremony  is  performed  by  a 
lady,  who  breaks  a  bottle  of  wine  across  the  bows  of  the 
ship  rearing  up  before  her,  names  her,  and  wishes  her 
success.  Simultaneously  the  upper  launchways  are  re- 
leased by  the  triggers,  and  the  vessel  commences  to  glide 
down  the  greased  ways  with  accumulating  velocity.  In 
Japan  a  very  pretty  ceremony  accompanies  a  launch.  A 
cage  of  birds  is  attached  to  the  overhanging  bow,  and  fair 
hands  open  the  door  to  allow  the  songsters  to  escape,  the 
action  being  symbolic  of  the  freeing  of  the  ship  from  dry 
land. 

Should  the  release  of  the  triggers  fail  to  set  the  ship 
in  motion,  the  hydraulic  ram  is  permitted  to  expend  its 
enormous  pressure,  and  the  boat  begins  to  move,  almost 
imperceptibly  at  first,  but  with  rapidly  increasing  speed. 

The  stern  (or  bow)  cuts  gradually  into  the  water,  as  the 
cradle,  clinging  still  to  the  ways,  becomes  submerged.  A 
white  ruff  curls  round  the  rudder  and  extends  along  the 
sides,  mounting  higher  and  higher  as  the  screws  slip  from 
sight.  As  the  vessel  thrusts  herself  farther  into  the  water 
she  becomes  gradually  more  and  more  buoyant,  until 
finally  she  is  bearing,  like  a  lever,  upon  the  forward  cradle. 
The  after  cradle  and  sliding  ways,  relieved  of  the  weight, 
float  away  in  pieces  on  either  side.  All  the  strain  becomes 
imposed  upon  the  front  cradle,  and  this  is  the  crucial 
moment.  The  pressure  brought  to  bear  upon  the  front 
cradle  is  tremendous — indeed,  it  is  so  great  that  were  the 
ship  to  stop  suddenly  the  timbers  would  crumple  up  under 
the  strain.  But  the  hull  is  moving  rapidly;  the  enormous 
pressure  is  no  sooner  imposed  than  it  is  relieved.  There 
is  a  terrible  creaking  and  groaning.     Baulks  forming  the 


64    STEAMSHIP    CONQUEST   OF    THE    WORLD 

cradle  fly  out  in  all  directions  under  the  pressure,  there 
is  a  cloud  of  spray,  and  the  front  cradle  falls  to  pieces,  to 
drift  hither  and  thither — the  liner  is  water-borne. 

Scarcely  has  the  retreating  shell  of  steel  become  fairly 
afloat  when  it  feels  the  check.  One  after  another  the  drags 
come  into  action,  so  that  before  the  vessel  has  gone  very 
far  through  the  water  the  force  of  the  retarding  influence 
is  exerted  to  its  maximum,  and  the  ship  is  brought  gently 
to  a  standstill. 

In  the  case  of  the  Mauretania  it  was  necessary  that  the 
vessel  should  be  swung  round  in  the  river  the  moment 
she  was  afloat.  For  this  purpose  a  heavy  anchor  was 
buried  in  the  river  bank  upstream  on  the  same  side  as  the 
shipbuilding  yard,  and  the  cable  leading  from  this  to  the 
stern  of  the  liner  was  designed  to  become  taut  the  moment 
the  ship  had  cleared  the  ways.  As  the  bow  dipped  into  the 
water  this  cable  exerted  its  pull  and  swung  the  hull  round, 
the  anchor  being  dragged  120  feet  in  the  process.  As  the 
vessel  drew  up  another  anchor  was  dropped  to  moor  her, 
while  simultaneously  half-a-dozen  tugs,  waiting  in  readi- 
ness, hurried  up  and  made  fast  to  the  bow  and  stern,  to 
tow  her  to  the  fitting-out  berth  just  below  the  shed  from 
which  she  had  just  previously  emerged. 

The  most  noticeable  feature  of  this  launch,  which  was 
a  brilliant  success,  was  the  complete  fulfilment  of  the 
calculations  predetermined  by  the  naval  architect.  There 
was  not  the  slightest  hitch.  From  the  moment  the  shapely 
mass  commenced  to  move  after  being  christened  until  she 
was  at  rest  in  the  river  only  77  seconds  elapsed.  The  liner 
glided  down  from  a  height  of  34  feet  and  travelled  951  feet, 
starting  from  a  state  of  rest  to  attain  a  maximum  velocity 
of  14J  knots  per  hour  in  the  course  of  480  feet,  and  being 
brought  to  rest  again  in  this  brief  period. 

Now  and  again,  despite  the  elaborate  precautions  taken 
to  ensure  success,  a  mishap  occurs  to  scatter  the  carefully 
laid  plans  to  the  four  winds.  On  the  Clyde,  as  a  ship 
slipped  down  the  ways,  the  lower  parts  of  the  latter  sub- 
sided suddenly,  bringing  the  ship  to  a  standstill   before 


THE    LAUNCH    AND    TRIAL   TRIP  65 

she  reached  the  water.  Some  days  elapsed  before  the 
vessel  was  floated.  In  this  instance  the  river  had  been 
dredged  after  the  shipbuilding  berth  was  laid  down,  and 
the  foundations  of  the  latter  became  undermined,  with  the 
result  that  the  ways,  when  submitted  to  the  weight  of  the 
moving  ship,  sank,  and  thus  pulled  up  the  travelling  hull. 

On  another  occasion,  on  the  north-east  coast,  a  heavy 
steamer  was  being  launched,  when,  for  some  obscure 
reason,  after  the  stern  had  slipped  into  the  water  the  vessel 
eased  up,  and  came  to  rest  with  her  bow  still  resting  on 
its  cradle,  a  few  feet  short  of  the  lower  end  of  the  ways. 
This  was  about  as  precarious  a  position  as  a  vessel  could 
assume  during  this  operation,  because  the  stern  being 
buoyant,  it  rose  and  fell  with  the  movement  of  the  tides. 
The  strain  imposed  not  only  upon  the  forward  cradle, 
which  remained  intact,  but  on  the  vessel  herself,  with  her 
bows  pinched  as  it  were  in  a  vice,  while  her  stern  lifted 
and  dropped  continually,  was  terrific.  The  builders  were 
faced  with  a  teasing  problem.  There  was  the  fear  that 
the  vessel  might  break  her  back,  or  that  the  front  cradle 
would  collapse.  After  many  anxious  days  and  the  ex- 
penditure of  considerable  skill  and  marvellous  ingenuity, 
the  ship  was  extricated  from  her  situation  and  got  afloat. 
She  was  then  hurried  into  dry  dock,  to  see  if  she  had  bent 
or  buckled  in  any  way  under  the  terrible  ordeal.  But,  to 
every  one's  surprise,  the  vessel  was  as  perfect  as  if  she 
had  slid  into  the  water  in  a  few  seconds,  instead  of  days, 
which  testifies  to  the  soundness  of  her  construction. 

Occasionally,  however,  a  mishap  in  the  launch  precipi- 
tates a  ghastly  calamity.  There  was  the  case  of  the 
Daphne,  a  small  steamship  launched  on  the  Clyde.  She 
had  just  reached  the  end  of  the  ways  and  was  practically 
water-borne,  when  she  heeled  right  over  and  sank.  There 
were  large  gangs  of  workmen  on  board  at  the  time,  hasten- 
ing forward  the  internal  structural  arrangements,  and  of 
this  army  124  were  drowned.  It  is  surmised  that  the 
stacks  of  material  on  board  got  adrift,  upset  the  stability 
of  the  craft,   and   thus  caused   her  to   capsize  without  a 

F 


66     STEAMSHIP    CONQUEST   OF    THE    WORLD 

moment's  warning.  This  vessel  was  salved  and  completed, 
only  to  develop  into  one  of  those  "hoodoo,"  or  unlucky, 
craft  which  at  rare  intervals  disturb  the  shipowner's  and 
seafarer's  peace  of  mind.  She  was  renamed  the  Rose,  but 
her  career  was  summarily  interrupted  at  Londonderry 
where  she  renewed  her  acquaintance  with  the  sea-bed  by 
becoming  filled  with  water.  Once  again  she  was  got  afloat, 
but  a  little  later  she  fouled  some  rocks  at  Millport,  and  her 
bottom  was  mauled  badly  in  the  process.  Her  owners 
grew  somewhat  tired  of  this  repeated  "  hard  luck,"  and  sold 
her.  Once  again  her  name  was  changed,  to  lanthe,  but 
there  came  no  welcome  change  in  her  fortune.  She  was 
continually  in  trouble,  and  her  new  owners  in  disgust  sold 
her  to  a  Greek  firm,  to  trade  along  the  rocky  coasts  of  the 
eastern  Mediterranean.  What  has  become  of  her  since  I 
have  been  unable  to  ascertain,  but  she  was  viewed  with 
trepidation  by  all  who  knew  her  gruesome  history. 

The  Italians  appear  to  be  somewhat  unfortunate  in 
launching  vessels.  One  ship  came  down  the  ways  as 
beautifully  and  as  gracefully  as  the  most  accomplished 
shipbuilder  could  desire,  but  when  she  was  water-borne 
she  began  to  heel  over.  Those  on  board  took  alarm,  and 
promptly  jumped  clear  to  save  themselves.  As  she 
careened  more  and  more  the  water  entered  her  lower  port- 
holes, which  incautiously  had  been  left  open,  and  the  in- 
rushing  water  so  disturbed  her  balance  that  at  last  she 
rolled  over  on  her  side.  In  this  instance  no  lives  were  lost, 
as  the  crew  swam  ashore  in  time.  On  another  occasion, 
while  an  Italian  ship  was  coming  down  she  gave  a  list 
before  she  cleaved  the  water,  and  stopped  dead  in  a  most 
alarming  position.  The  cradles  collapsed,  leaving  her 
stranded  on  the  ways  as  if  she  had  been  thrown  ashore  by 
a  huge  wave,  where  she  presented  a  perplexing  problem 
for  her  recovery. 

At  last,  when  the  fitting  out  has  been  completed  and  the 
last  hook  has  been  affixed  in  the  wardrobe,  preparations 
for  the  trial  trip  are  taken  in  hand.  This  may  be  a  per- 
functory  function   in   the   case  of  a   tramp,   or  of  an   ex- 


A    NOVEL    LAINCH 

The  stern-wheel  steamer  Axholine,  140  feet  long  and  weighins  170  tons,  was  deposited  in  the 
water  by  the  150-ton  crane  at  the  Birkenhead  shipyards  of  Messrs.  Caniinell,  Laird  &  Co.,  Ltd. 


PJioto  />y  />i-riiiissii>n  'j/^"  Syren  and  Shifiphif;     1 

\    KKJKCTEl)    OCEAN    CiKEVllOl  Nl) 

'I'lie  Kaisfr  J^'rii-iiriih  was  refused  liy  the  North  German  Lloyd  Iiecau> 
to  .--liow  tlie  contract  speed.     .She  lay  at  anchor  in  Hanil)urg 
harbour  for  15  years  before  she  found  a  purchaser. 


THE    LAUNCH   AND   TRIAL   TRIP  67 

haustive  character  with  a  huge  liner  which  has  been  built 
for  speed.  The  shipowner,  when  he  placed  the  order, 
stipulated  for  a  certain  speed,  and  he  now  ascertains  if  this 
requirement  has  been  fulfilled.  If  the  vessel  rises  to  the 
occasion,  and  the  owner  is  completely  satisfied,  the  captain 
and  crew  are  sent  to  the  shipyard,  the  vessel  coals  up,  and 
away  she  goes  on  her  maiden  voyage.  If  the  trials  should 
be  attended  by  a  speed  less  than  that  mentioned  in  the 
contract,  then  the  builder  has  the  risk  of  the  vessel  being 
thrown  upon  his  hands. 

Fortunately,  among  British  shipbuilders  this  is  a  con- 
tingency which  is  not  feared,  although  at  times  no  little 
difficulty  is  experienced  in  squeezing  the  last  knot  out  of 
the  ship.  Then  the  engine-room  staff  have  an  exciting 
and,  it  may  be  added,  exceedingly  arduous  time.  The 
vessel  has  got  to  touch  the  limit  by  hook  or  by  crook  to 
satisfy  the  owner,  and  the  black  squad  toil  like  Trojans 
to  consummate  this  end.  Of  course,  wind  and  weather 
exercise  far-reaching  influences  upon  this  question.  Many 
a  craft  has  only  just  scraped  through  her  trial  trip  because 
everything  has  been  completely  favourable  at  the  time. 

If  the  contract  for  the  vessel  has  been  handed,  lock, 
stock  and  barrel,  unfettered  to  the  shipbuilder,  from  her 
preliminary  calculations  to  the  finished  product,  no  doubt 
prevails  that  the  vessel  will  meet  the  owner's  requisitions 
in  every  particular,  because  every  detail  has  been  checked 
and  counter-checked  carefully  at  each  successive  stage. 
With  an  ordinary  tramp,  moreover,  the  risks  of  the  builder 
are  somewhat  mitigated.  If  she  fail  to  show  her  paces  on 
the  trial  trip  and  is  declined  by  the  owner,  the  ship  being 
a  stock  standard  size  for  everyday  work  in  her  field,  no 
difficulty  is  experienced  in  finding  a  purchaser. 

When  a  vessel  is  designed  for  special  traffic,  such  as  the 
North  Atlantic  express  mail  and  passenger  service,  the 
failure  to  show  the  demanded  turn  of  speed  has  an  alarming 
result.  An  ocean  greyhound  commands  a  limited  market  : 
she  is  suited  only  to  the  work  and  purpose  for  which  she 
has  been  designed.     Consequently,  the  shipbuilder  takes 


68     STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST   OF    THE    WORLD 

every  care  to  err  on  the  right  side.  It  is  far  better  to  give 
the  ship  half-a-knot  per  hour  in  excess  of  the  contract 
than  to  fall  a  quarter  of  a  knot  below  it.  Probably  the 
most  colossal  blunder  in  this  direction  on  record  was  that 
of  the  Kaiser  Friedrich.  She  was  built  in  1897  for  the 
New  York  service  of  the  North  German  Lloyd,  and  is  a 
magnificent  three-funnelled  liner  of  12,450  tons,  fitted  with 
engines  developing  24,000  indicated  horse-power,  capable 
of  giving  a  speed  of  about  20  knots  per  hour.  She  prob- 
ably cost  ;^500,ooo — $2,500,000 — but  she  was  a  magnificent 
failure.  She  failed  to  come  up  to  the  guarantees,  and  her 
owners  refused  to  accept  her  under  any  circumstances. 
Useless  for  the  North  Atlantic  trade,  she  was  quite  unsuited 
to  any  of  their  other  services,  and  accordingly  she  was  laid 
up  in  the  harbour  at  Hamburg.  For  fifteen  years  she  rode 
quietly  at  the  end  of  her  mooring  chains,  a  striking  example 
of  calculations  and  building  gone  astray.  No  one  wanted 
her,  and  no  one  gave  a  thought  to  her.  She  was  a  white 
elephant  to  her  builders,  and  her  maintenance  charges  and 
expenses  in  the  harbour  must  have  aggregated  a  big  sum 
by  the  time  a  French  company  came  along  early  in  191 2, 
looked  her  over,  and  finally  acquired  her  for  the  River 
Plate  trade.  The  circumstance  of  a  splendid  liner  lying 
idle  for  fifteen  years  is  probably  unique  in  the  annals  of 
the  mercantile  marine  and  shipbuilding.  In  this  instance, 
while  the  builder  got  rid  of  a  bad  bargain,  from  his  point 
of  view,  after  a  weary  wait,  the  buyers  secured  a  crack 
ship — the  fastest  in  the  trade — no  doubt  at  a  knock-down 
price. 

A  similar  result,  though  with  a  fortunate  ending,  befell 
a  Clyde  shipyard  in  1873,  when  the  Inman  Line  was  in 
the  running  for  the  blue  ribbon  of  the  Atlantic.  This 
company  contracted  for  a  vessel,  the  City  of  Rome,  449 
feet  in  length  and  of  4,790  tons.  She  made  one  or  two 
trips,  bringing  the  trans-Atlantic  passage  within  eight 
days,  and  then  was  returned  to  her  builders,  because  she 
failed  to  fulfil  the  guarantees.  In  this  instance,  as  the 
Atlantic   trade   was    in    its    infancy,   the   builders   did    not 


THE    LAUNCH    AND    TRIAL    TRIP  69 

suffer.  The  rejected  of  the  Inman  Line  became  one  of 
the  finest  vessels  of  the  Anchor  fleet,  and  for  many  years 
her  three  black  funnels  were  conspicuous  on  the  ocean, 
while  she  became  a  great  favourite  among  the  travelling 
public. 

The  trial  trip  is  not  always  convincing.  There  was  a 
Cunard  flyer  of  two  or  three  decades  since  of  which  much 
in  point  of  speed  was  anticipated,  but  she  failed  to  come 
up  to  expectations.  The  Cunard  Company,  however, 
decided  to  retain  her,  and,  strange  to  say,  she  steadily 
improved  after  her  acquisition,  until,  in  the  course  of  a 
few  round  trips,  she  developed  a  speed  in  excess  of  the 
contract,  and  maintained  it  steadily.  A  similar  result 
attended  the  Cunard  purchase  of  the  Oregon,  501  feet  long 
and  of  7,375  tons,  with  engines  of  13,500  horse-power. 
She  was  built  for  one  of  the  Cunard's  competitors,  but  was 
secured  by  the  pioneer  line.  Her  first  trip  was  somewhat 
disappointing,  but  she  soon  made  amends,  and  at  last 
broke  all  records  by  crossing  the  Atlantic  westward  in 
6  days  10  hours  9  minutes.  Her  consistent  running  so 
impressed  her  new  owners,  particularly  when  she  lowered 
her  westward  record  by  18  minutes,  and  maintained  an 
average  of  6  days  14  hours  for  the  passage  to  and  fro,  that 
they  ordered  two  larger  and  more  powerful  vessels  from 
her  builders.  The  Umbria  and  the  Etruria  were  the 
resultant  productions — two  ships  which  occupy  a  prominent 
position  in  the  history  of  steam  navigation. 

It  is  extremely  doubtful  whether  any  vessels  intended 
for  express  passenger  service  ever  have  been  subjected  to 
such  severe  and  searching  trials  as  those  which  the 
Lusitania  and  Mauretania  had  to  undergo  in  order  to 
comply  with  the  British  Government's  requisitions.  The 
country  was  paying  the  bill  for  a  novelty  in  marine  practice 
— turbine  propulsion — and  it  resolved  to  secure  value  for 
the  outlay. 

Both  vessels  had  to  pass  through  a  48  hours'  full-speed 
trial  under  conditions  as  similar  as  possible  to  those  pre- 
vailing on   an   Atlantic  journey,  and  at  loaded  draught. 


70     STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST   OF    THE    WORLD 

The  course  was  350  miles  in  length,  extending  from  Corse- 
wall  Point  off  Wigtownshire  to  the  Longships  off  Corn- 
wall. Each  ship  had  to  complete  this  round  trip  twice, 
and  as  the  builders  were  keen  to  uphold  their  reputations, 
they  did  not  fail  to  concentrate  their  efforts  upon  the  estab- 
lishment of  startling  records.  These  trials  gave  striking 
indications  of  what  the  liners  would  achieve  when  placed 
in  regular  service,  for  both  succeeded  in  maintaining  over 
25J  knots  per  hour  during  the  whole  48  hours'  run.  The 
Mauretania  distinguished  herself  in  particular  by  reeling 
off  an  average  of  2736  knots,  or  over  31  miles,  an  hour  on 
the  second  run  from  north  to  south,  while  her  average 
speed  came  out  at  2604  knots,  or  nearly  30  miles  an  hour, 
for  the  whole  period. 

There  were  some  exciting  moments  down  in  the  stoke- 
hold during  this  test.  The  men  came  from  the  north-east 
coast,  and  there  was  a  powerful  manifestation  of  friendly 
rivalry  between  the  Tynesiders  and  their  comrades  on  the 
Clyde,  who  had  been  out  with  the  Lusitania  some  weeks 
previously  over  the  self-same  course.  I  was  in  the  stoke- 
hold while  the  Mauretania  was  running  round  the  north 
of  Scotland  on  her  way  to  enter  the  measured  distance  and 
tests.  The  ship  was  running  easy  at  the  time,  and  a  gang 
of  eager  giants  of  the  black  squad  had  gathered  before 
one  of  the  boilers  which  at  the  time  was  not  working,  and 
were  holding  forth  strenuously  upon  the  speed  merits  of 
the  two  ships.  A  stoker  who  hailed  from  South  Wales, 
and  accordingly  had  no  interest  in  either  riversides,  started 
the  argument  by  extolling  the  performance  of  the  Lusitania 
over  the  1,400  miles'  trial  trip.  He  worked  his  north 
country  comrades  to  such  a  pitch  that  at  last  one  of  the 
brawniest  wielders  of  the  stokehold  shovel  bawled  out, 
"Look  you  'ere,  mate,  we'll  lick  the  ^  Lucy,^  even  if  we 
bust  the  '  Mary  '  to  do  it !  "  To  which  there  was  such  a 
vociferous  and  enthusiastic  "Aye  !  aye  !  "  that  I  knew  the 
Mauretania  was  destined  to  be  put  through  her  paces  with 
a  vengeance.  Then  they  hinted  vaguely  at  what  the  ship 
had  done  out  in   the  North  Sea  on   the  occasion  of  the 


THE    LAUNCH    AND    TRIAL    TRIP  71 

builders'  private  investigations  as  to  the  speed  of  their 
creation.  They  talked  darkly  about  the  30  knots  they  had 
notched  on  one  occasion,  and  there  was  a  shake  of  the  head 
which  told  me  that  it  would  not  be  their  fault  if  the  liner 
did  not  do  something  striking.  No  brawn  and  muscle  were 
spared  on  that  48  hours'  run  in  tossing  the  huge  shovelfuls 
of  coal  from  bunker  to  boiler  furnace;  the  engineer  never 
had  the  least  doubt  about  the  pressure  of  the  steam  within 
the  boilers;  the  black  squad  below  were  seeing  to  that, 
because  the  pride  and  glory  of  Tyneside  were  at  stake. 

The  trial  trips  ended  and  proving  satisfactory,  the  ship 
passes  out  of  the  hands  of  the  builders  into  those  of  the 
owners.  The  vessel  takes  up  her  position  in  the  scheduled 
service,  and  settles  down  to  her  round  of  toil. 


CHAPTER    VI 

THE   LUXURY    OF   THE   MODERN    LINER 

Readers  of  Charles  Dickens  have  sympathised  with, 
and  have  been  amused  no  doubt  by,  the  efforts  of  Martin 
Chuzzlewit  and  Mark  Tapley  to  make  themselves  comfort- 
able while  crossing  the  Atlantic  in  the  very  early  days  of 
steam  navigation.  Their  experiences,  virtually,  were  those 
of  the  novelist  who  taught  us  how  to  laugh  and  to  cry 
himself,  on  the  occasion  of  his  visit  to  North  America. 
He  received  his  baptism  of  the  Atlantic  upon  the  first 
Cunarder,  the  historic  Britannia,  whereon  it  defied  the  wit 
of  man  to  make  himself  snug,  because  comfort  was  the  very 
last  thing  which  the  vessel  offered.  The  passenger  paid 
his  money  to  be  transported  across  the  ocean  ;  not  to  be 
entertained  like  an  Oriental  potentate  amid  barbaric  luxury 
and  splendour. 

What  a  change  has  been  wrought  in  steamship  travel 
during  a  short  three-quarters  of  a  century  !  Then,  the  first- 
class  cabins  were  cell-like  apartments,  scantily  and  dismally 
furnished,  replete  only  with  the  barest  necessaries,  badly 
lighted,  and  indifferently  ventilated.  An  oil-lamp  safely 
moored  in  one  corner  threw  a  fitful  glimmer  over  the  cup- 
board, and  blackened  the  ceiling.  A  rude  bunk,  which 
to-day  an  emigrant  would  spurn,  served  as  a  bed  which 
caused  every  bone  in  the  body  to  ache  instead  of  resting 
the  human  frame;  the  walls  were  plain  wood  of  a  dingy 
tone,  and  the  essential  hangings  and  embellishments, 
reduced  to  the  very  barest  requirements,  were  musty  and 
nauseating.  The  passages  were  like  caverns,  so  that  one 
had  to  steal  along  wearily  to  preserve  the  limbs  intact;  the 
public  rooms  were  cramped,  bare  and  oppressive,  while 
the  "constitutional"  had  to  be  taken  in  a  space  upon  the 

72 


5  ^t 


THE    LUXURY    OF   THE    MODERN    LINER     73 

deck  recalling  a  prison  yard,  where  it  was  quite  impossible 
for  the  healthy,  active  person  to  stretch  his  limbs.  The 
boat  being  small,  narrow  and  light,  was  practically  the 
sport  of  the  waves,  rolling  and  pitching  like  a  cockleshell, 
so  that  the  plight  of  the  travellers  was  pitiable  in  the 
extreme,  mal-de-mer  claiming  all  but  the  hardiest  sailors 
as  victims.  I  have  been  unable  to  obtain  any  particulars 
of  the  victualling  arrangements  of  those  days,  but,  judging 
from  the  character  and  dimensions  of  the  vessel,  the  doctor, 
if  such  a  minister  to  humanity  were  carried,  must  have 
been  a  busier  man  than  the  chef. 

As  the  mercantile  marine  grew  and  prospered,  the  con- 
venience and  comfort  of  the  passengers  received  more  and 
more  attention,  but  it  was  not  until  the  'seventies  of  the 
past  century  that  the  shipowners  realised  the  significance 
of  the  traveller  in  their  revenue  accounts.  In  the  first 
instance,  trans-Atlantic  and  other  liners  came  into  existence 
fundamentally  to  carry  mails ;  passengers  were  on  a  footing 
with  cargo.  But  as  time  passed,  and  the  subsidies  awarded 
for  mail  contracts  diminished,  the  owners  awoke  to  the  fact 
that  the  human  element  was  destined  to  play  an  important 
part  in  the  financial  success  of  vessels. 

Yet  the  keynote  of  modern  shipbuilding  luxury  may  be 
said  to  have  been  struck  on  the  appearance  of  the  White 
Star  liners,  the  Majestic  and  Teutonic,  and  the  Cunarders 
Lucania  and  Campania.  In  the  first  two  vessels  comfort 
was  the  vital  consideration ;  in  the  second  comfort  and 
speed  were  combined  for  the  first  time,  because  here  a 
new  era  in  shipbuilding  was  inaugurated.  The  naval 
architect  had  reigned  supreme  hitherto.  Now  the  domestic 
architect  was  called  into  service.  The  former  was  held 
responsible  for  the  staunchness,  safety,  seaworthiness  and 
speed  of  the  boat ;  the  latter  was  entrusted  with  the  task  of 
planning  and  decorating  the  accommodation  for  the  travel- 
ling population ;  to  dispel  the  idea  that  one  was  really  on 
board  ship,  in  favour  of  illusion  that  one  was  living  in  a 
luxurious  hotel. 

In  this  work  the  domestic  architect  has  been   given  a 


74     STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST   OF    THE    WORLD 

very  free  hand,  and,  so  far  as  those  vessels  which  are  con- 
structed essentially  for  mail  and  passenger  service  are 
concerned,  no  financial  obstacles  are  placed  in  his  way. 
The  idea  appears  to  be  rather  to  introduce  the  voyager — 
even  the  wealthiest — to  an  atmosphere  of  luxury  which  he 
has  never  seen  in  his  life  on  shore,  and  as  the  competition 
for  this  type  of  traveller  has  become  keener  and  keener, 
owing  to  the  number  of  lines  engaged  in  the  traffic,  each 
succeeding  vessel  represents  a  marked  advance  upon  its 
predecessor. 

This  unceasing  struggle  for  more  extravagant  luxury  has 
been  responsible  for  another  development,  which  to-day 
has  attained  a  position  of  importance.  When  the  decorative 
period,  as  it  may  be  termed,  came  into  vogue,  the  average 
domestic  architect  was  adequate  for  the  purpose.  He 
handled  his  new  foundations  in  the  same  manner  as  he 
would  a  villa  or  a  mansion  on  dry  land.  But  as  time  pro- 
gressed it  became  more  and  more  apparent  that  there  was 
a  very  wide  gulf  between  these  two  branches  of  the  art. 
The  ship  demanded  special  treatment.  The  naval  architect, 
by  the  evolution  of  improved  and  stronger  metals,  was 
enabled  to  suppress  the  nakedness  of  his  essential  metal- 
work  more  and  more  up  to  a  certain  limit,  and  there  he  has 
been  compelled  to  stop.  The  naval  architect  argued  for 
safety  and  staunchness  of  his  product ;  the  decorative  artist 
insisted  upon  the  requirements  of  his  tastes  and  fancies 
being  fulfilled.  The  latter  failed  to  recognise  the  impera- 
tive work  of  the  former,  and  the  designer  of  the  ship  refused 
to  budge  to  gratify  artistic  idiosyncrasies.  The  latter 
proved  victorious  in  the  struggle  because  the  regulations 
of  the  classification  societies  such  as  Lloyd's,  the  British 
Corporation,  the  Bureau  Veritas,  and  similar  bodies  of 
other  countries,  supported  him  in  his  contentions. 

An  amusing  instance  of  this  breach  between  utility  and 
decoration  was  related  to  me.  A  domestic  architect,  occu- 
pying one  of  the  pinnacles  in  his  profession,  was  called  in 
to  embellish  the  public  rooms  of  the  liner,  and  was  given 
a  free  hand.     He  prepared  his  designs,  which  Mere  exe- 


MODERN    DOMESTIC    ARCHITECTURE    ON    AX    ATLANTIC    LINER 

The  First  Class  Dining  Saloon  of  the  North  German  Lloyd  intermediate  steamer 
Geo!-ge  Washington^  designed  by  Rudolf  Alexander  Schroder. 


l^Y permission  oftlu-  •■  Shiplniildci-'  \ 

AKClin  IX  TIKAL    HKAl    IV    ON    AN    ATLANTIC    I.INIOK 

A  glimpse  of  the  rna-iiilicent  oak  panelliii-  in  tlie  Dining  Saloon  of  t!ie  Maio\-t<x>i 
carried  out  in  the  Francois  Premier  ])eriocl.     Desi.^Mied  by  H.  II.  I'eto,  Ksq. 


THE    LUXURY   OF   THE    MODERN    LINER     75 

cuted,  and  then  visited  the  shipyard  in  order  to  inspect  the 
progress  of  his  handiwork.  When  he  gained  the  dining- 
saloon  he  gave  a  cry  of  horror.  The  naval  architect,  who 
was  accompanying  him,  inquired  what  was  the  matter. 

"It  will  ruin  the  whole  scheme,"  wailed  the  decorative 
artist.  "Look  at  those  pillars,  and" — pointing  to  the 
ceiling — "those  beams."  Then,  with  a  lordly  wave  of  his 
hand,  he  cried,  "Take  them  away." 

Certainly  the  pillars  dotting  the  space  and  rising  up  in 
their  ugly  nakedness,  and  the  beams  cutting  across  the 
width  of  the  ship  in  their  grim,  drab  grey,  were  enough 
to  wound  aesthetic  susceptibilities,  but  the  naval  architect 
shook  his  head  quietly. 

"Why  not?"  inquired  the  artist. 

"Oh  !  only  because  if  you  do  you'll  have  the  two  decks 
above  and  the  captain's  bridge  come  clattering  down," 
replied  the  practical  man.  "You  see  they  keep  the  super- 
structure up,  and  also  help  to  hold  the  ship  together,  while 
I  am  afraid  that  if  you  took  them  out,  Lloyd's  and  the 
underwriters  would  be  after  you.  It  is  necessary  to  keep 
the  fabric  together  somehow  !  " 

The  artist  said  no  more,  but  he  cherished  deep-rooted 
opinions  concerning  the  lack  of  artistic  taste  possessed  by 
the  practical  man.  Still,  he  learned  that  in  shipbuilding 
there  are  certain  structural  details  which  will  thrust  them- 
selves forward  willy-nilly,  and  that  it  is  imperative  to  com- 
bine decoration  with  utility.  This  feature  has  resulted  in 
the  development  of  domestic  architects,  who  specialise  in 
the  craft,  realising  that  their  naval  colleagues  only  can  meet 
aesthetic  requirements  up  to  a  certain  limit,  and  that  the 
artist  must  make  these  indispensable  invaders  into  his 
field  as  attractive  as  possible  to  harmonise  with  his 
scheme. 

In  the  early  days  decorative  ideas  followed  somewhat 
conventional  grooves.  They  were  either  massive  and  solid, 
or  bright  and  gaudy.  White  and  gold  figured  very  exten- 
sively, giving  the  interiors  somewhat  the  appearance  of  a 
glorified   tea-shop,    or   German   bierhaller.     The   architect 


76     STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST   OF    THE    WORLD 

suffered  from  inexperience  and  nervousness.  He  hesitated 
to  launch  out  into  daring  designs  lest  they  might  fall  short 
of  their  purpose,  and  feared  to  play  upon  the  strings  of 
variety  for  different  rooms,  in  case  they  became  bewilder- 
ing. This  conservatism  and  monotony  prevailed  until  one 
or  two  artists,  bolder  than  their  colleagues,  wandered 
farther  afield  to  introduce  ideas  and  embellishments  which 
never  were  contemplated  in  connection  with  ship  decora- 
tion. The  older  members  of  the  craft  stood  aghast.  The 
new  movement  was  dismissed  as  "arrant  anachronism"; 
but  to  their  chagrin  the  new  departure  pleased  the  public. 
The  result  is  that  upon  a  modern  liner  as  many  as  thirty 
different  decorative  styles,  belonging  to  as  many  different 
schools,  distributed  among  as  many  rooms,  are  to  be  seen, 
and  the  variety  is  pleasing  rather  than  otherwise. 

Some  of  our  British  shipbuilding  architects  and  the 
German  architects  have  achieved  eminent  distinction  in 
this  field.  It  is  a  difficult  fold  for  the  artistic  aspirant  to 
enter,  no  matter  how  great  his  fame  in  his  craft,  owing  to 
the  peculiar  difficulties  attending  the  work.  A  certain 
knowledge  of  shipbuilding  practice  is  essential  to  realise 
what  the  naval  architect  is  compelled  to  carry  out.  As  one 
eminent  ship-architect  described  the  situation  to  me,  "It  is 
essential  to  recognise  the  necessary  eyesores  and  evils  of 
the  builder,  and  then  to  disguise  them  as  much  as  possible 
or  turn  them  to  useful  account  in  the  decorative  scheme." 

The  majority  of  the  geniuses  associated  with  this  work 
have  grown  up  with  the  development.  Many  can  relate 
an  association  of  a  quarter  of  a  century  or  so.  Johann 
Poppe,  for  instance,  has  been  responsible  for  the  embellish- 
ment of  the  Nord-Deutscher  Lloyd  steamships  for  a  matter 
of  twenty-five  years,  and  has  been  a  very  aggressive  pioneer 
in  many  branches  of  his  handicraft.  These  men  have 
caught  the  prevailing  spirit  and  fashion  of  the  age,  and 
have  a  keen  knowledge  of  public  requirements,  while  at 
the  same  time  they  strive  incessantly  for  individuality. 
To  be  a  success,  the  decorative  artist  working  in  this  arena 
must  be  ever  on  the  alert  for  something  new,  must  be  a 


A    RKCIAL    SI  ITK 
This  form  of  luxury  has  become  a  feature  hi  modern  ocean  travel. 


THE    KIRST-C'LASS    DlMNt;    SALOON" 

For  the  decoratkir.  of  tlii^  huge  apartment,  capable  of  .■~eatin,:;  nearly  600  passenger> 
at  small  tables,  the  arti>i>  drew  upon  the  17th  century. 

ART    A\D    LUXURY    OX    THE    OLYMPIC 


IIIK    FlKSl -CLASS    LOINCIK 
This  is  in  the  style  of  Limis  XV,  with  details  copied  from  the  Palace  at  Versailles. 


TIIK    I'IRST-CLASS    SMOKK    ROOM 

C'haracterised  by  free  adaptations  of  ideas  drawn  from  English  Early-Georgian  Houses 
(about  1720),  with  mother-of-pearl  inlay  instead  of  wood  carving. 

ART    AND    I.rxrRV    OX    THE     OLYMPIC 


THE    LUXURY   OF   THE    MODERN    LINER     77 

creator,  and  be  possessed  of  fertile  imagination,  no  matter 
whether  he  is  handling  massive  oak  and  carving,  or  delicate 
tones  and  colour  effects  upon  flat  surfaces. 

Variety  and  purity  of  styles  are  the  characteristics  of 
present-day  ship  decoration,  assimilated  with  pleasant 
glimpses  of  modern  art  to  give  relief.  Thus,  for  instance, 
on  the  Olympic  Louis  Seize,  Empire,  Adams,  Italian 
Renaissance,  Louis  Quinze,  Louis  Quatorze,  Georgian, 
Queen  Anne,  Modern  Dutch  and  Old  Dutch,  are  to  be 
found  side  by  side  among  the  regal  suites.  These,  indeed, 
are  very  favourite  styles  for  these  self-contained  luxurious 
flats,  and  are  followed  very  extensively  in  the  majority  of 
the  latest  liners,  more  particularly  the  British  vessels. 

It  is  in  the  public  rooms  such  as  the  dining,  drawing, 
writing  and  smoking  saloons  where  the  decorator  has  the 
greatest  scope,  because  ample  space  and  height  are  avail- 
able to  permit  his  artistic  bent  to  be  displayed  to  the  utmost. 
The  schemes  may  favour  either  the  heavy,  bold  and  impres- 
sive, or  the  dainty  and  delicate,  according  to  the  avowed 
purpose  of  the  apartment.  A  few  years  ago  the  artist  was 
somewhat  restricted,  inasmuch  as  the  twin  screw  reciprocat- 
ing engines,  when  driven  at  full  speed,  set  up  an  extreme 
vibration,  which,  being  transmitted  throughout  the  length 
and  breadth  of  the  vessel,  was  liable  to  shake  the  dainty 
and  delicate  decorative  work  to  pieces.  The  artist  there- 
fore had  to  confine  himself  rather  to  treatments  which 
could  withstand  these  strains.  But  with  the  advent  of  the 
turbine,  and  especially  of  the  combined  turbine  and  recipro- 
cating engines,  together  with  the  more  scientific  balancing 
of  the  heavy,  moving  masses,  whereby  vibration  is  reduced 
to  insignificance,  the  artist  now  has  greater  opportunities 
than  ever  to  display  his  skill  and  talent. 

Some  of  these  public  apartments  have  been  brought  to 
a  high  artistic  standard  of  luxury,  and  the  expense  dis- 
bursed upon  the  decorative  work  in  many  instances  runs 
into  enormous  figures,  because  the  artist  is  under  no 
restraint.  There  is  the  mural  work  in  the  dining-saloon  of 
the  Maiiretania,  for  instance.     The  style  is  the  Francois 


78     STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST   OF   THE    WORLD 

Premier ;  the  straw-coloured  oak  panelling  is  richly  carved, 
and  the  true  characteristics  of  the  period  are  retained,  no 
piece  of  carving  being  an  exact  facsimile  of  its  fellow.  In 
every  instance  the  carving  is  by  hand,  cut  back  from  the 
face  of  the  solid  wood.  Perhaps  no  sister  ships  offer  such 
divergent  styles  as  the  two  famous  Cunarders.  In  striking 
contrast  to  the  above  dining-saloon,  that  upon  the  Lusi- 
tania  follows  the  Louis  Seize,  with  an  old  rose  as  the 
general  colour  for  the  curtains,  hangings  and  carpet.  On 
the  Olympic  the  artists  ransacked  the  seventeenth  century 
for  their  ideas,  and  have  displayed  the  prevailing  tendency 
in  ship  decoration  by  copying  details  from  several  Jacobean 
houses  of  the  period,  so  as  to  secure  purity  of  style.  The 
reproduction  of  the  decorative  details  of  famous  residences 
and  mansions  of  distinctive  periods  upon  board  ship  is 
becoming  quite  fashionable.  Instead  of  the  original  sug- 
gesting an  idea,  as  has  been  the  vogue  hitherto,  it  is  being 
reproduced  in  facsimile,  even  to  the  smallest  detail.  If  this 
development  is  carried  to  the  extreme,  we  shall  see  the 
public  saloons  of  the  future  liner  presenting  replicas  of 
famous  British  castles  and  historic  seats — a  dining-room 
from  Penshurst  Place,  a  drawing-room  from  Chatsworth, 
a  baronial  hall  from  Holyrood,  and  so  on.  The  tourist 
then  will  be  spared  the  round  of  visits  through  these  islands 
— he  will  become  familiarised  with  our  historic  architectural 
treasures  while  crossing  the  ocean  by  rambling  through  his 
temporary  floating  home. 

The  freedom  which  has  been  extended  to  the  architect, 
and  the  diversity  of  his  schemes,  have  imposed  supreme 
tasks  upon  the  joiners  and  upholsterers,  who  are  respon- 
sible for  the  conversion  of  the  artist's  handiwork  into  wood, 
textiles  and  metal-work.  The  increasing  demand  for  accu- 
racy is  placing  a  more  emphasised  premium  upon  skill 
and  workmanship,  and  at  times  the  craftsman  is  hard 
pushed  to  fulfil  the  designer's  ideas.  In  completing  one 
room  upon  the  Mauretania  several  countries  had  to  be 
scoured  for  thirty  different  woods,  some  of  which  have 
become  very  rare.     Valuable  and  historic  designs  have  to 


THE    LUXURY   OF   THE    MODERN    LINER     79 

be  unearthed  to  provide  correct  patterns  and  colourings  as 
well  as  material.  The  Cunarders  have  become  famed  the 
whole  world  over  for  their  beautiful  embellishment.  The 
distinction  is  not  misplaced.  The  peculiar  conditions 
under  which  they  were  built  gave  the  artists  unique  oppor.. 
tunities  which  were  not  lost,  with  the  result  that  these  two 
vessels  represent  the  pinnacle  of  ship  decoration. 

Although  it  is  the  tout  ensemble  which  compels  atten- 
tion, examination  of  the  various  details  will  demonstrate 
the  keen  competition  to  excel.  There  is  not  a  single  jarring 
note;  everything  is  in  harmony.  The  main  consideration 
is  to  convey  the  idea  that  one  is  not  at  sea,  but  on  terra 
firma.  Half  a  century  ago  the  round  portholes  were  the 
sole  means  of  admitting  daylight  into  the  various  apart- 
ments, and  they  were  left  in  all  their  naked  ugliness;  to-day 
fancy  windows,  wrought  according  to  the  decorative  scheme 
of  the  apartment  to  which  they  belong,  are  the  fashion, 
finished  off  with  curtains  and  hangings.  The  dome  to  the 
dining-saloon,  which  throws  a  flood  of  subdued  light  over 
the  apartment  below,  secures  infinitely  careful  and  expen- 
sive treatment,  the  ceiling  round  the  light-well  being 
relieved  with  mural  paintings,  exquisitely  executed,  more 
often  than  not  by  a  master  hand,  or  beautiful  carvings. 
Such  incidentals  as  the  ceiling  roses  for  electric  lights, 
fasteners  to  the  windows,  grills  enclosing  the  electric 
radiators — all  are  designed  and  fashioned  in  accordance 
with  the  style.  Here  and  there  are  what  appear  to  be,  at 
first  sight,  anachronisms,  such  as  an  aluminium  grille  for 
a  period  when  wrought-iron  was  used.  But  it  will 
be  found  in  every  instance  that  the  "modernisation"  has 
been  carried  out  for  specific  reasons,  such  as  to  save  weight, 
which  in  a  high-speed  liner  is  an  important  consideration, 
and  no  injury  is  done  to  the  artistic  spirit. 

The  Mauretania  has  been  described  as  the  most  costly 
decorated  vessel  afloat.  But  it  is  British  in  style,  treatment 
and  workmanship,  solid  and  durable,  so  that  it  fulfils 
national  traditions.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  stated  that 
the  British  firms  do  not  offer  very  material  encouragement 


8o     STEAMSHIP    CONQUEST   OF    THE    WORLD 

to  our  artists.  In  other  words,  the  mural  paintings,  while 
being  works  of  art,  are  not  specimens  of  famous  living 
painters.  This  is  undoubtedly  true,  because  an  atmosphere 
of  anonymity  pervades  the  whole  decorative  scheme;  but 
it  is  a  moot  point  whether  the  traveller  does  not  benefit. 
He  is  spared  "artistic  atrocities"  which  are  usually  the 
fruits  of  fame. 

Contrast  this  practice  with  that  prevailing  in  Germany. 
In  the  early  days  of  the  present  ocean  greyhound  era,  the 
ornate  rococo  was  favoured  very  extensively,  but  as  the 
pace  for  steamship  decoration  was  set  by  the  British 
builders,  the  German  owners  were  forced  to  introduce  a  new 
element.  They  sought  their  foremost  artists  and  offered 
them  the  mural  decorations,  mosaic,  sculpture  and  plastic 
embellishment.  The  result  is  that  every  modern  liner 
flying  the  German  eagle  constitutes  a  picture-gallery  of 
famous  native  painters  and  craftsmen,  and  the  work  of  the 
artist  is  acknowledged,  so  that  all  may  admire — or  depre- 
cate. For  instance,  on  the  wall  of  the  staircase  of  the 
Prince  Friedrich  Wilhelm  are  two  beautiful  mosaic  panels 
designed  by  Professor  F.  A.  O.  Kriiger  of  Munich;  the 
staircase  of  the  George  Washington  is  the  handiwork  of 
Professor  Bruno  Paul;  Heinrich  Pellenberg  was  respon- 
sible for  the  children's  play-room  on  the  same  vessel,  and 
it  is  one  of  the  prettiest  apartments  on  the  boat.  The  deep 
frieze  round  this  saloon  depicts  scenes  from  the  fairy  tales 
so  dear  to  the  young  imagination,  and  it  is  not  surprising 
that  travellers  of  tender  age  upon  this  vessel  find  infinite 
enjoyment  in  their  special  apartment.  This  artist  was 
responsible,  also,  for  the  embellishment  of  the  drawing  and 
music-room  on  the  Berlin.  Evidences  of  his  tasteful  handi- 
work are  scattered  throughout  the  Norddeutscher  Lloyd 
fleet. 

This  country  might  very  well  follow  the  Teuton  example 
to  encourage  ship  decorative  art,  as  craftsmen  fitted 
naturally  and  by  inclination  to  this  class  of  work  are  so 
very  rare.  The  Norddeutscher  Lloyd  possesses  a  master 
in  Johann  Poppe,  but  the  time  will  come  when  this  hand 


THE    LUXURY   OF   THE    MODERN    LINER     8i 

will  be  overtaken  by  inexorable,  rapidly-striding  Fate. 
The  late  Dr.  Wiegand,  while  controlling  spirit  of  the 
destinies  of  this  organisation,  fully  cognisant  of  this  cir- 
cumstance, decided  to  make  provision  for  the  future. 
While  the  Kronprinzessin  Cecilie  was  on  the  stocks,  he 
conceived  the  idea  of  inviting  some  of  the  foremost  German 
artists  to  submit  competitive  designs  for  many  of  the  private 
rooms.  Thereby  he  extended  a  hand  of  encouragement  to 
representatives  of  the  modern  school,  and  also  anticipated 
the  discovery  of  one  or  two  geniuses  who  might  be  able 
to  follow  his  right-hand  designer  Johann  Poppe  when  the 
moment  came.  In  addition  to  a  number  of  avowed 
domestic  architects,  the  three  accepted  leaders  of  the 
modern  German  art  movepient — Professors  Josef  Olbrich, 
Bruno  Paul,  and  Richard  Riemerschmidt — were  chosen  for 
the  contest.  The  work  of  these  three  painters  aroused 
widespread  attention.  They  not  only  displayed  their 
innate  aptitude  for  this  special  class  of  work,  but  intro- 
duced three  distinctly  new  styles,  each  of  which  possessed 
many  characteristics.  The  contest  was  highly  successful. 
All  three  were  regarded  as  promising  successors  to  Poppe. 
Riemerschmidt's  work  secured  innumerable  admirers 
owing  to  its  refreshing  originality;  Paul's  because  there 
was  a  pleasing  combination  of  the  artistic  with  the  prac- 
tical ;  while  that  of  the  Viennese  artist  Olbrich  instantly 
claimed  the  favour  of  the  fair  sex  from  its  daintiness, 
delicacy  and  versatility.  His  work  betrayed  an  intimate 
acquaintance  with  the  caprices  of  fashion,  and  he  had 
instinctive  knowledge  as  to  how  to  capture  "my  lady's" 
eye  and  approval.  Some  of  his  ideas  were  daring,  but  they 
were  typical  of  the  painter.  His  premature  death  was 
deeply  deplored,  as  he  did  not  have  the  opportunity  to 
display  his  artistic  temperament  upon  a  scale  which  would 
have  revealed  his  mastery  of  the  subject  for  steamship 
purposes. 

On  the  other  hand.  Professor  Paul,  by  his  ideas,  pro- 
mised a  complete  revolution  in  marine  decorative  art;  some 
of  his  work  is  of  a  beautiful  character.     L'pon  his  appoint- 

G 


82     STEAMSHIP    CONQUEST   OF    THE    WORLD 

fnent  to  the  post  of  Director  of  the  School  of  Applied  Art 
in  Berlin,  where  his  influence  became  manifested  very 
rapidly  with  highly  satisfactory  results,  Dr.  Wiegand  made 
another  master  stroke  of  policy.  He  promptly  established 
a  branch  of  the  United  Workshops  for  Arts  and  Crafts 
at  Bremen,  and  secured  the  collaboration  of  Professor  Paul 
in  its  management.  This  is  virtually  a  training-school  for 
marine  decorative  architects,  so  that  the  Norddeutscher 
Lloyd  is  not  only  securing  provision  for  the  future,  but  is 
making  doubly  sure  of  obtaining  first-class  craftsmen  for 
the  embellishment  of  forthcoming  vessels. 

The  French  ship  decorative  school  has  acquitted  itself 
successfully  in  connection  with  the  latest  greyhound  France. 
In  this  vessel  the  national  artistic  qualities  have  been  given 
full  reproduction  regardless  of  expense,  as  the  vessel  has 
been  built  to  attract  the  wealthiest  class  of  passenger.  The 
main  feature  is  the  improvement  upon  the  cabin  de  luxe, 
or  regal  flat,  which  is  such  a  feature  of  the  latter-day  liners. 
This  is  a  princely  suite  of  rooms  known  as  de  grand 
luxe,  which  probably  represents  the  most  expensive  de- 
velopment in  this  phase  of  steamship  luxury  yet  attempted. 
It  is  designed  for  the  accommodation  of  six  persons,  so 
that  a  family,  or  party,  is  able  to  travel  in  complete  isola- 
tion. The  sleeping  accommodation  contains  one  double 
and  one  single  brass  bedstead,  and  three  canopy  beds. 
There  is  a  dining-saloon,  a  drawing-room,  the  latter  being 
executed  after  the  salons  of  one  of  the  Touraine  chateaux, 
in  the  period  of  Louis  XVI,  with  a  dining-room  of  the 
purest  Empire  style,  together  with  bath-room  and  other 
domestic  conveniences.  The  appointment  of  one  of  these 
apartments  alone  represents  an  outlay  of  nearly  ;^2000,  or 
$10,000. 

The  sleeping  accommodation  has  been  re-modelled,  so 
far  as  first-class  passengers  are  concerned.  On  the  France 
the  sleeping-berth,  or  bunk,  forming  a  fixture  against  the 
wall  of  the  cabin,  is  abandoned  in  favour  of  a  single  brass 
bedstead.  This  is  an  improvement  which  will  be  appre- 
ciated very  highly  by  travellers,  as  in  a  double  cabin  the 


Till-:    IMI'OSlNc;    ENTRANCK    AMI    DOOR    TO    TlIK    SMOKING-ROOM,    WITH 
MIRAL    I'AINTINC;    OF    HAMBCRc;    HARBOl  R 


ART    AND    LUXURY    0.\    THK    DEUTSCHLAMD 


A    SKAT    IN    THE    GKANO    ENTRANCE    ON    THE    BOAT    DECK 


By  pcriiiissioit  of  the  "  Shipbuilder  "\ 

A    UKAlTlKfL    FRENCH    TAPKSTKV    PANEL    IN    THE    EIKST-CI.ASS    LOINC.E 

ART    AND    LUXURY    OX    THE    MAURETAXIA 


THE    LUXURY   OF   THE    MODERN    LINER     83 

struggle  into  the  upper  berth  at  times  is  far  from  pleasant 
to  the  occupant  of  the  lower  couch. 

The  dining-saloon  is  a  masterpiece  of  artistic  taste.  It 
extends  through  three  decks,  and  from  the  floor  level  to  the 
top  of  the  dome  is  about  30  feet  in  height.  The  salon  is 
divided  into  two  floors,  the  upper  dining-saloon  being 
disposed  around  the  well  and  overlooking  the  lower  floor, 
with  communication  provided  by  a  graceful  and  beautiful 
staircase  reminiscent  of  a  palace,  with  a  massive  and  exqui- 
site painting  on  the  panel  facing  the  saloon.  The  decora- 
tion of  the  dining-saloon,  which  will  seat  350  people  simul- 
taneously at  small  tables  in  the  general  style  favoured  by 
modern  liners,  has  been  borrowed  from  the  ancient  mansion 
of  the  Comte  of  Toulouse,  carried  out  by  Robert  D^cotte, 
pupil  of  the  celebrated  Mansard.  The  wood-carving  is 
noteworthy,  together  with  the  painting  on  the  staircase 
depicting  "La  Grace  Fran^aise,"  which  is  the  signed  work 
of  the  French  artist  La  Touche.  This  painter  was  respon- 
sible also  for  the  mural  embellishments  to  the  dome,  which 
are  of  exquisite  charm  and  grace.  In  the  lounge  is  another 
fine  painting,  a  full  length  portrait  of  Louis  XIV  by 
Hyacinthe  Rigaud,  after  the  well-known  painting  preserved 
in  the  Louvre,  flanked  by  portraits  of  Princesse  de  la  Tour 
du  Pin,  Madame  de  Maintenon,  Henriette  d'Angleterre, 
and  la  Duchesse  de  Bourgogne.  At  the  opposite  end  of 
the  apartment,  facing  Rigaud's  portrait  of  Louis  XIV,  is 
another  picture  after  Van  de  Meulen  in  the  museum  at 
Versailles,  representing  this  monarch  upon  his  return  from 
the  hunt  in  the  Park  of  Versailles.  The  other  artistic 
acquisitions  comprise  a  statue  wrought  in  bronze  of 
"France,"  the  work  of  the  sculptor  Nelson,  set  in  a  promi- 
nent niche  in  the  entrance-hall;  and  in  the  drawing-room, 
executed  in  the  Regency  period,  are  two  exquisite  works 
by  the  Italian  painter  Laroix.  These  are  original  canvases, 
bearing  the  date  1774.  Another  imposing  public  apartment 
is  the  Moorish  salon,  with  its  fountain  and  a  frescoe 
Algeriea  by  the  Oriental  artist  Poisson.  Some  idea  of  the 
money  that  has  been  lavishly  expended  upon  the  appoint- 

G3 


84     STEAMSHIP    CONQUEST   OF   THE    WORLD 

ment  of  this  pride  of  the  French  mercantile  marine  may  be 
gathered  from  the  fact  that  ;^40,ooo,  or  $200,000,  were  spent 
upon  the  furniture  and  painting  for  the  dining  and  draw- 
ing-rooms alone,  of  which  total  a  single  painting  in  the 
drawing-room  cost  ;^20OO,  or  $10,000.  In  view  of  these 
lavish  outlays  upon  details,  merely  to  please  the  public  for 
a  matter  of  six  days,  one  is  not  surprised  to  learn  that  the 
liner  cost  a  round  ;^  1,000,000,  or  $5,000,000,  to  build  and 
equip.  Huge  though  this  sum  appears,  it  is  eclipsed  by 
the  cost  of  the  Mauretania  and  the  Olympic,  which  un- 
doubtedly represent  the  costliest  expressions  of  ocean  travel 
luxury. 

Nowadays  the  traveller,  when  he  steps  aboard,  enters 
Utopia.  He  becomes  the  pampered  child  of  indulgence. 
The  modern  leviathan  is  provided  with  seven  or  more 
decks,  but  one  is  spared  the  tedious  climb  and  descent  of 
the  staircase  from  one  level  to  another.  The  citizen  of  the 
floating  town  presses  a  button,  a  grille  rolls  back  to  reveal 
an  elevator,  and  he  is  whisked  to  the  desired  floor.  There 
are  seductive  lounges  and  saddlebag  easy-chairs  in  the 
smoking-room,  and  a  winter  garden  where  a  cup  of  tea  or 
a  modest  glass  of  beer  appear  instantly  in  reply  to  demand. 
Maybe  the  day  is  hot,  but  welcome  relief  may  be  had  in 
the  cooling,  refreshing  waters  of  the  swimming-bath.  The 
advocate  of  physical  culture  will  find  in  the  well-equipped 
gymnasium  every  facility  to  keep  in  the  pink  of  condition. 
When  time  hangs  heavily  on  one's  hands,  and  when 
shuffleboard,  quoits  and  other  orthodox  games  have  ex- 
pended their  fascination  in  the  open  air  upon  deck,  there 
is  the  racquet  court,  where  prowess  may  be  matched  against 
a  fellow-traveller,  or  a  welcome  companion  in  a  favourite 
author  may  be  found  in  the  well-stocked  library.  Even  the 
luxury  of  a  Turkish  bath  is  not  denied  to  its  votaries. 

When  the  traveller  finally  retires  to  his  couch  he  makes 
himself  snug  and  comfortable  upon  a  spring  mattress 
beneath  a  mass  of  snowy-white  linen.  A  scarcely  per- 
ceptible movement  of  the  hand  clicks  a  switch  to  extinguish 
the  electric  light,  or,  if  one  be  an  inveterate  reader  in  bed. 


THE    LUXURY    OF   THE    MODERN    LINER     85 

there  is  a  friendly  shaded  light  at  the  elbow.  Perhaps 
some  refreshment  is  desired.  The  push  of  a  button  within 
arm's  reach  brings  a  steward  to  the  bedside.  In  the 
morning,  upon  waking,  a  few  steps  brings  one  to  the  bath- 
room to  revel  in  the  invigoration  of  a  needle  or  spray- 
bath.  Before  the  bugle  announcing  breakfast  rings  out, 
a  constitutional  may  be  taken  on  the  promenade  deck, 
and  a  mile  can  be  covered  within  two  or  three  laps  of  the 
vessel . 

My  lady  possesses  equal,  if  not  greater,  conveniences. 
On  the  dressing-table  is  a  natty  device,  which,  with  the 
turn  of  a  button,  enables  her  to  heat  the  intricate  imple- 
ments for  completing  the  coiffure.  Or  she  may  prefer  to 
leave  this  delicate,  though  essential,  operation  to  other 
and  more  highly  skilled  hands.  Forthwith  she  seeks  the 
services  of  the  master  in  hairdressing,  manicure  and 
massage. 

Then  the  morning  paper  is  out.  The  latest  doings  on 
terra  firma  have  trickled  into  the  ship  via  the  wireless 
telegraph  during  the  night.  The  news  is  set  up  in  terse, 
cold  type  in  the  printing  department,  and  is  duly  printed 
upon  an  unpretentious  sheet.  While  enjoying  breakfast 
one  may  become  acquainted  with  the  world's  happenings 
as  easily  as  on  shore. 

This  atmosphere  of  luxury  and  convenience  is  by  no 
means  confined  to  the  magnificent  liners  flying  to  and  fro 
between  the  United  States  and  Europe.  A  steamship 
girdle  has  been  woven  round  the  earth,  and  the  travellers 
to  and  from  the  most  distant  countries  have  become  just 
as  capricious  as  their  colleagues  journeying  between  the 
Old  and  New  Worlds.  This  upward  movement  has  at- 
tended the  general  desire  for  a  pronounced  speeding  up  in 
all  directions  so  as  to  shrink  the  world. 

Where  will  it  all  end?  No  one  can  say.  Apparently 
there  is  no  finality  to  luxury  on  board  ship,  and  the 
capricious  nature  of  the  travelling  public  compels  the 
shipowner  to  maintain  his  determination  to  excel. 


CHAPTER    VII 

SAFETY   AT    SEA 

Hand-in-hand  with  the  development  of  the  design,  the 
utilisation  of  stronger  materials,  and  resort  to  more  power- 
ful machinery,  unremitting  attention  has  been  devoted  to 
the  question  of  safety.  The  enormous  value  of  the  modern 
liner,  the  number  of  souls  she  carries  on  board,  the  regu- 
larity of  the  service,  irrespective  of  weather  conditions, 
high  speed,  and  the  many  perils  lurking  along  the  great 
steamship  highways  render  the  safety  question  of  para- 
mount importance.  A  catastrophe  in  mid-ocean  was  too 
terrible  to  be  contemplated,  but  it  was  believed  to  be  so 
impossible  that  no  one  gave  two  thoughts  to  the  subject, 
the  timid  being  reassured,  time  after  time,  that  such  a  con- 
tingency was  impossible,  because  the  modern  liner  was 
claimed  to  be  unsinkable.  On  one  occasion  when  the  late 
Captain  Smith  was  discussing  the  subject,  he  replied,  "  I 
can  conceive  no  accident  which  would  send  a  modern  liner 
to  the  bottom ;  at  least,  not  before  all  her  passengers  had 
been  got  off." 

Such  was  the  blind  faith  in  the  belief  that  science  had 
triumphed  completely  over  disaster.  Unfortunately  the 
navigator  who  gave  expression  to  the  above  statement  had 
the  misfortune  to  meet  with  an  accident  which  ruthlessly 
destroyed  his  optimism,  because  the  ship  he  was  then 
commanding,  the  largest  afloat,  on  her  maiden  voyage, 
fouled  one  of  the  obstacles  to  be  found  littering  the  ocean 
lanes,  and  went  to  the  bottom  within  four  or  five  hours. 
It  was  not  the  intrinsic  worth  of  the  ship  which  staggered 
humanity,  although  it  was  huge  in  all  conscience,  repre- 
senting as  it  did  some  ;^2,ooo,ooo,  or  ten  million  dollars, 
but  the  heavy  death-roll,  over  half  of  the  floating  town 
meeting  with  a  watery  grave. 


SAFETY    AT   SEA  87 

No  shipbuilder  will  admit  that  a  vessel  is  unsinkable; 
and  in  fact  never  has  made  such  a  statement.  But 
it  was  believed,  until  the  terrible  disaster  of  1912,  that  a 
liner  would  keep  afloat  for  several  hours,  or  even  days, 
after  she  received  a  mortal  wound.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  naval  architect  will  not  maintain  that  unsinkability  is 
impossible.  He  assumes  an  agnostic  attitude,  born  of  the 
hope  that  ultimately  science  will  emerge  victorious.  Prob- 
ably if  the  designer  were  permitted  to  have  his  own  way, 
and  was  not  influenced  by  commercial  considerations,  he 
could  produce  a  vessel  which  would  be  virtually  unsink- 
able, but  it  would  be  of  no  utility  to  the  shipowner,  and 
would  be  shunned  by  the  sea-traveller,  who,  after  all,  is 
the  deciding  factor.  The  naval  architect  strives  to  secure 
absolute  safety  within  the  compass  of  his  limitations,  and 
the  very  fact  that  heartrending  marine  disasters  are  so  few 
and  far  between  is  the  best  testimony  to  his  ability  and  to 
the  high  degree  of  safety  that  has  been  gained. 

The  safety  of  the  twentieth  century  liner  has  been 
brought  to  its  oresent  pitch  through  successive  disasters, 
and  the  shipbuilder  has  not  been  slow  to  profit  from  the 
lessons  to  be  gained  from  a  wreck.  When  the  Collins 
Line  made  a  bold  bid  for  the  supremacy  of  the  Atlantic, 
those  responsible  for  the  venture  announced  far  and  wide 
that  the  vessels,  specially  built  for  the  service,  were  the 
safest  afloat,  proof  against  every  peril  of  the  sea,  except 
fire  and  collision.  It  was  a  vain  boast,  because  it  was  one 
of  the  two  exceptions  which  led  to  the  undoing  :  one  of 
their  ships  encountered  collision,  and  sank  within  four 
hours. 

This  accident  revealed  one  important  fact— that  if  a  vessel 
were  completely  open  from  stem  to  stern  she  was  doomed 
in  the  event  of  being  torn  open  and  the  hole  being  too  big 
to  cover  with  an  emergency  device.  The  water  was  certain 
to  flow  from  end  to  end  and  to  rise  higher  and  higher,  until 
at  last  the  buoyancy  of  the  fabric  was  destroyed.  The 
calamity  which  befell  the  Arctic  gave  the  shipbuilder  an 
idea.     Why  not  split  the  interior  of  the  vessel  into  com- 


88     STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

partments  by  the  introduction  of  walls,  or  bulkheads, 
extending  from  side  to  side  of  the  vessel  ?  The  first  move 
in  this  direction  was  made  by  introducing  such  a  partition 
in  the  bow.  As  head-on  collision,  either  with  another 
vessel,  derelict,  or  iceberg,  was  to  be  feared  the  most,  this 
wall  became  known  as  a  collision  bulkhead,  and  there  is 
no  doubt  that  many  of  the  ships  of  that  day,  which  were 
fitted  with  this  protection,  and  had  the  misfortune  to  plunge 
into  an  obstacle,  owed  their  survival  to  its  existence.  At 
any  rate,  it  saved  the  Guion  liner  Arizona,  the  fastest  and 
largest  vessel  of  the  late  'seventies  of  the  past  century,  when 
she  struck  the  iceberg  while  feeling  her  way  across  the 
Grand  Bank.  Her  stem  was  carried  right  away,  leaving 
a  gaping  hole  from  keel  to  taffrail,  through  which  the  water 
rushed.  The  nose  of  the  liner  dipped  under  the  weight, 
but  the  bulkhead  held,  and  the  liner  was  able  to  gain  St. 
John's,  Newfoundland.  Similarly  when  the  Florida 
rammed  the  Repuhlique  in  igo8,  although  the  bow  of  the 
former  vessel  was  crumpled  up  like  a  concertina,  the  for- 
ward bulkhead  fulfilled  its  designed  purpose  and  enabled 
the  liner  to  regain  New  York. 

After  the  collision  bulkhead  had  proved  its  value,  it  was 
not  long  before  further  subdivision  was  carried  out.  Grad- 
ually the  whole  of  the  hull  became  split  up  into  a  number 
of  sections,  in  the  same  way  as  a  building  is  divided  into 
rooms  by  party  walls  and  partitions.  The  Great  Eastern, 
though  a  dismal  failure  from  every  other  point  of  view, 
was  a  masterpiece  of  safety,  since  Brunei  was  somewhat 
lavish  in  his  adoption  of  bulkhead  subdivision,  and, 
moreover,  the  hull  was  provided  with  practically  a  double 
skin.  She  was  the  safest  vessel  afloat  in  her  day,  and,  in 
fact,  it  is  doubtful  whether  she  has  ever  been  surpassed. 
Shipbuilders  might  profitably  pocket  their  pride  and  render 
their  vessels  safer  if  they  would  deign  to  extend  tardy 
recognition  to  a  master  of  half-a-century  ago  by  copying 
his  ideas. 

Yet  as  events  have  proved,  the  very  means  which  were 
devised  to  render  a  ship  less  apt  to  sink  when  violently 


A    FIRST-CLASS    STATE-ROOM    ON    THE    I  I'PKK    DKCK 

The  telephone,  electric  radiator,  and  electric  curling  irons  are  among  the 
conveniences  provided  on  this  liner. 


11H-.    t-lKM -CLASS    SMOKE-ROOM 

The  artistic  features  include  walnut  pillars  and  panelling,  with  a  magnificent  wood  hood  to 
the  chimney-piece,  modelled  and  carved  from  a  tine  example  of  Delia  Robbia 
in  the  South  Kensington  Museum. 


ART   AND    LUXURY    OX    THP:    MAURETANIA 


SAFETY    AT   SEA  89 

struck  became  a  source  of  danger.  It  was  all  very  well 
to  divide  the  hull  into  compartments  by  the  aid  of  bulk- 
heads, but  these  protective  walls  had  to  be  pierced  with 
openings  to  permit  intercommunication.  True,  these 
openings  were  provided  with  doors  which,  when  closed, 
converted  the  bulkhead  into  a  solid  whole,  but  the  doors 
had  to  be  shut  by  hand.  This  was  the  vulnerable  feature 
in  the  idea.  The  human  factor  is  never  dependable, 
especially  in  time  of  dire  emergency,  no  matter  how 
thoroughly  and  persistently  it  may  be  drilled.  The  sink- 
ing of  the  Bourgogne  emphasised  this  point.  When  the 
Cromartyshire  drove  into  her,  ripping  open  her  hull  as  if 
it  were  paper,  the  black  squad  made  a  mad  rush  for  the 
decks.  In  their  stampede  the  stokers  forgot  all  about  the 
water-tight  compartment  doors;  they  left  one  and  all  open, 
allowing  the  incoming  water  to  complete  its  fell  purpose. 
Had  the  crew  below  not  lost  their  heads,  it  is  probable 
that  the  wounded  liner  would  have  kept  afloat,  at  any  rate 
for  a  sufficient  length  of  time  to  have  enabled  every  one  to 
have  made  good  an  escape. 

This  terrible  disaster  illustrated  the  fallacy  of  depending 
upon  the  men  to  close  a  bulkhead  door.  Accordingly 
efforts  were  made  to  perfect  a  system  of  accomplishing  the 
desired  end  by  mechanical  effort  controlled  from  a  central 
point.  The  Norddeutscher  Lloyd  Company,  in  collabora- 
tion with  the  Deptford  engineering  firm  of  Stone  &  Com- 
pany, embarked  upon  a  number  of  experiments,  whose 
scope  was  the  perfection  of  a  system  which  would  answer 
the  danger  call  instantly  and  thoroughly,  and  be  proof 
against  tampering.  Investigations  were  crowned  with 
success,  and  the  Stone-Lloyd  automatically  closing  water- 
tight doors  have  become  indispensable  in  every  liner 
worthy  of  the  name  and  where  safety  is  considered. 
Numerous  other  devices  to  the  same  end  have  been  evolved, 
but  they  have  failed  to  withstand  the  tests  of  experience, 
and  to-day  the  Anglo-German  system  stands  supreme  and 
is  in  universal  application. 

When  the  system  was  first  introduced  upon  the  Kaiser 


90     STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST   OF    THE    WORLD 

Wilhelm  der  Grosse  in  1897,  the  innovation  was  regarded 
with  mixed  feelings  by  the  crew  working  in  the  depths  of 
the  ship.  They  did  not  feel  secure  with  a  system  of  shut- 
ting the  doors  from  the  bridge.  The  less  enlightened 
feared  that  the  doors  would  close  and  shut  them  in  to  drown 
like  rats  in  a  trap.  It  took  some  time  to  convince  them 
that  such  a  result  was  quite  impossible.  It  was  pointed 
out  that  even  if  the  door  did  descend,  those  within  had  only 
to  turn  a  handle  to  raise  it  and  effect  their  escape,  and  the 
door  would  close  upon  them  directly  under  its  own  power. 
One  or  two  antagonistic  spirits  refused  to  be  satisfied  upon 
this  point  even  by  demonstration.  In  their  own  wisdom 
they  sought  security  by  propping  up  the  open  doors.  But 
they  were  defeated  in  this  ingenious  scheme,  as  when  the 
power  was  applied  from  the  bridge,  and  the  propped  doors 
naturally  failed  to  close,  the  captain  was  able  to  locate  the 
latter  from  the  indicator  on  the  bridge.  When  the  captain 
and  engineer  appeared  before  the  refractory  doors  and  the 
reason  for  their  inaction  was  apparent,  those  responsible 
for  disabling  them  received  a  few  straight  words  with 
threats  of  penalties  that  would  be  meted  out  if  they  prac- 
tised the  subterfuge  in  future.  The  more  enlightened  men 
in  the  stokeholds  realised  the  meaning  of  the  safety 
appliance,  as  well  as  the  fact  that  they  were  quite  secure 
from  imprisonment.  So  by  a  little  hammering  were  able 
to  infuse  feelings  of  security  into  their  denser  colleagues. 
In  a  short  time  all  antagonism  to  the  new  notion  was 
overcome. 

The  water-tight  door  ranks  as  one  of  the  greatest  con- 
tributions to  the  unsinkability  of  a  vessel  that  ever  has  been 
made,  especially  as  it  is  quite  free  from  complicated  or 
delicate  mechanism.  Its  principles  may  be  grasped  by  an 
engineer  in  a  few  seconds;  there  is  practically  nothing  to 
get  out  of  order.  The  crew  also  may  become  familiarised 
with  its  main  features  and  working  without  effort. 

Although  no  mechanical  device  can  be  made  infallible, 
the  advantage  of  this  invention  is  that  should  anything  go 
wrong  with   the  operating   mechanism,    the   doors   imme- 


SAFETY    AT   SEA  91 

diately  close  and  remain  in  that  condition  until  the 
apparatus  has  been  repaired,  although  the  members  of  the 
crew  are  able  to  pass  to  and  fro  without  hindrance,  merely 
by  turning  a  wheel  to  open  the  door. 

The  evolution  of  the  device  entailed  prolonged  and 
laborious  research  to  ensure  reliability,  instantaneous 
action,  simplicity,  and  automatic  operation.  Various 
systems  of  power,  such  as  compressed  air,  electricity, 
steam  and  hydraulics,  were  tested  searchingly,  but  it  was 
ascertained  that,  from  the  all-round  point  of  view,  the  last- 
named  method  was  the  most  satisfactory.  Since  the 
original  system  was  introduced  continued  investigation  has 
resulted  in  greater  perfection  being  obtained,  and  the  device 
as  it  stands  to-day  is  conceded  to  be  perfect  in  its  design, 
purpose  and  working. 

Extending    throughout    the   ship    is   a   hydraulic   main 

communicating   with   every   door.      The   pressure  in   this 

main  is  maintained  by  means  of  two  pumps,  placed  in  a 

convenient    position     among    the     auxiliary     machinery. 

These  two  pumps  are  always  working,  so  that  the  doors 

respond  to  the  action  of  the  control  lever  instantly.     The 

pumps  are  in  duplicate,  so  that  should  one  fail  or  be  thrown 

out  of  service,  the  other  is  quite  capable  of  fulfilling  all 

requirements.      These    pumps    charge    a    large    tank,    or 

accumulator,  as  it  is  called,  from  which  the  pressure  of 

water  is  maintained  in  the  operating  main.     The  control 

itself  is  placed  on  the  bridge,  and  all  that  is  required  is 

the  depression  of  a  lever  on  a  pedestal  dial.     From  fifteen 

to  twenty  seconds  after  the  movement  of  this  handle,  every 

door  throughout  the  ship  is  closed,  and  the  vessel  is  made 

watertight  from  end  to  end.     As  the  doors  descend,   an 

electric  gong,  attached  to  each  opening,  emits  a  sonorous 

blare,  warning  all  those  who  may  be  in  the  vicinity  to  stand 

clear.     Thus,  while  the  ship  is  travelling,  should  the  officer 

on  watch  observe  an  unavoidable  danger  ahead,  he  can  at 

once  protect  the  ship  by  closing  the  whole  of  the  doors,  so 

that  at  the  moment  of  the  impact  the  ship  is  watertight 

throughout. 


92     STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST   OF    THE    WORLD 

Suppose  the  menace,  be  it  another  vessel,  a  derelict, 
rocks,  or  iceberg  smash  through  the  hull,  the  doors  are 
kept  closed  to  confine  the  incoming  water  to  the  damaged 
compartments.  The  ship  draws  clear,  and  search  is  made 
then  for  the  extent  of  the  injury.  When  this  has  been 
determined  the  flooded  compartments  may  be  sealed,  and 
kept  in  that  condition  until  port  is  reached.  All  that  is 
necessary  is  to  screw  up  a  valve  outside  each  door  of  the 
damaged  compartments,  and  then  the  bulkhead  is  made 
as  solid  as  if  there  were  no  doorway.  This  not  only 
renders  it  impossible  to  reopen  the  door  leading  thereto, 
but  also  disconnects  it  from  the  remainder  of  the  system. 
The  commander  then  lifts  the  lever  on  the  bridge,  when 
all  the  doors,  except  those  detached,  open  simultaneously. 

The  doors  are  solid  masses  of  steel,  driven  down  through 
heavy  spur  gearing  with  a  force  of  two  tons.  This  enables 
the  descending  mass  to  crunch  through  coal  and  other 
obstructions  with  as  much  ease  as  a  knife  will  cut  through 
butter  in  summer.  A  special  type  of  door  has  been  devised 
for  working  in  connection  with  the  coal  bunkers.  This  has 
an  angular  motion,  and  is  fitted  with  a  knife-like  edge,  so 
that  it  is  able  to  cleave  its  way  through  the  lumps  of  coal 
as  if  they  were  putty.  In  other  cases,  owing  to  lack  of 
space  to  fit  the  vertical  type  of  door  to  the  bulkhead,  it  is 
made  to  slide  horizontally,  but  in  every  instance  the  power 
exerted  and  the  resultant  effect  are  the  same. 

On  the  bridge,  over  the  control  handle,  is  a  small  in- 
dicator, resembling  that  employed  in  connection  with 
electric  bells.  On  the  dial  is  a  plan  of  the  ship,  with  the 
exact  position  of  every  door,  and  each  of  the  latter  is  repre- 
sented by  a  small  circular  orifice,  behind  which  is  a  tell- 
tale inscribed  with  the  number  of  the  door  to  which  it 
refers.  As  the  door  closes  the  number  comes  into  view, 
but  should  any  door  fail  to  respond  to  the  movement  of  the 
lever,  the  number  is  obscured,  and  the  captain  is  able  to 
ascertain  at  once  why  such  and  such  a  door  is  not  closed. 

The  control  is  effected  from  one  point,  and  one  point  only 
— the  bridge  :  and  no  one,  except  the  commander  or  officer 


SAFETY    AT   SEA  93 

on  watch,  can  either  close  or  open  the  doors,  except 
temporarily  to  pass  to  and  fro.  Even  the  independent 
opening  of  any  door  for  this  latter  purpose  is  intimated  on 
the  bridge  indicator,  so  that  the  captain  has  the  exact 
condition  of  the  doors  throughout  his  ship  before  him 
constantly.  It  may  happen,  however,  that  certain  doors, 
for  reasons  of  general  convenience,  either  shall  remain 
closed  or  only  partially  open,  when  the  others  are  fully 
extended,  and  the  control  lever  is  raised  on  the  bridge. 
This  requirement  is  often  necessary  in  the  case  of  the  doors 
to  the  refrigerator  rooms  and  the  coal-bunkers  when  the 
fuel  is  piled  up  against  the  door.  The  necessary  adjust- 
ments can  be  made  at  each  of  the  doors  in  question  to  meet 
the  end  in  view,  and  so  arranged  that  they  can  be  opened 
locally,  as  and  when  required.  But  the  moment  the  cap- 
tain applies  the  pressure  from  the  bridge,  the  doors 
throughout  the  ship  must  close.  Under  no  circumstances 
whatever  is  it  possible  for  any  door  to  remain  open  or 
partially  open  all  the  while  this  pressure  is  maintained, 
unless  wilfully  propped  open,  and  this  fact,  as  already 
mentioned,  is  communicated  instantly  to  the  navigator  by 
the  indicator. 

The  men  working  within  the  compartments  are  fully 
secured.  When  the  door  has  closed  they  can  pass  out 
leisurely,  despite  the  pressure  being  maintained.  All  that 
they  have  to  do  is  to  operate  a  small  control— one  is  placed 
on  either  side  of  the  door  to  enable  passage  in  either 
direction.  The  door  rises  easily,  and  the  man  passes 
through.  He  does  not  have  to  close  the  door  behind  him ; 
the  moment  he  releases  the  control  the  constant  closing 
pressure  applied  from  the  bridge  asserts  itself  immediately, 
and  the  door  runs  down  automatically  with  a  force  of  two 
tons.  The  value  of  this  local  operation  of  the  door  has 
not  been  lost  upon  the  crew.  They  realise  that  under  no 
circumstances  whatever  can  they  be  caught  like  rats  in  a 
trap.  Consequently  there  is  no  inducement  to  tamper  with 
the  mechanism,  and  in  fact  such  action,  if  it  were  attempted, 
would  be  resented  by  the  majority  of  the  men  themselves. 


94     STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST   OF   THE    WORLD 

This  is  the  outstanding  feature  of  the  Stone-Lloyd  system. 
It  has  the  confidence  of  the  men  working  far  below  the 
waterline,  and  accordingly  they  respect  it;  but  they  would 
entertain  very  different  ideas  if  no  such  local  temporary 
automatic  control  were  placed  within  their  hands. 

There  is  another  point  which  should  inspire  the  public 
travelling  on  a  boat  fitted  with  this  system.  In  times  of 
danger  the  commander  can  proceed  on  his  way  with  his 
ship  water-tight  from  end  to  end  by  closing  every  door. 
When  enveloped  in  a  fog,  when  navigating  dangerous 
channels,  or  when  threading  a  tortuous  way  through  water 
crowded  with  traffic,  and  where  the  dangers  are  extreme,  the 
captain  can  shut  down  every  door,  and  then  all  his  bulk- 
heads are  as  if  they  were  built  solid.  The  doors  might  be 
left  closed  for  days  and  nights  at  a  time,  merely  by  keeping 
the  control  lever  depressed,  the  hydraulic  pressure  being 
maintained  fully  meanwhile.  No  inconvenience  is  caused 
to  the  army  working  the  vessel :  intercommunication  is  not 
interrupted.  The  advantage  of  this  facility  is  obvious  :  it 
imparts  a  greater  degree  of  safety  to  the  ship  and  its 
hundreds  of  inhabitants. 

The  simplicity  of  the  system  lends  itself  to  frequent  test- 
ing. The  captain  is  able  to  ascertain  the  efficiency  of  the 
doors  at  any  moment.  The  operation  of  closing  and  open- 
ing may  be  completed  within  sixty  seconds.  This  is  a 
factor  which  ensures  the  system  being  kept  in  the  pink  of 
condition,  with  certainty  of  action  when  the  crisis  arrives. 

The  only  danger  attending  the  employment  of  an 
hydraulic  system  is  from  frost.  To  mitigate  this  evil  to 
its  smallest  dimensions  a  special  non-freezing  compound  is 
used,  which  not  only  accomplishes  the  avowed  purpose, 
but  which  also  tends  to  keep  the  integral  parts  of  the 
mechanism  in  first-class  condition.  One  great  advantage 
of  the  hydraulic  system  is  that  should  any  leakage  occur 
it  can  be  detected  easily  and  quickly  by  the  escape  of  the 
fluid,  which  is  not  so  simple  a  task  either  with  electricity 
or  compressed  air. 

The  system  also  can  be  rendered  automatic  if  desired. 


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A    COMBINKD    LIFE-S.WIM.     Dl.iK     ->  i .  \  1 

The  in,^enious    Linkleter  seat,  which  can  be  instantaneously  loosened,  and  wliich 
flattens  out  to  make  an  excellent  rait. 


Till-:    HRAIN    OF     TIIK    SIMP 

The  Xavi,i;atirig  IIrid,L,'e  oftlie  Maiuita/iiii .  showing;  the  \arious  control  de\i(:es  and  ulieel-hc 
All  the  Stone-Lloyd  watertight  tloors  are  closed  front  this  poiiU  sinudtaneously 
by  the  presstire  ofale\er. 


SAFETY    AT   SEA  95 

For  this  purpose  a  bilge  float  is  employed.  Should  any 
water  penetrate  the  vessel  unknown  to  the  crew,  this,  when 
it  has  attained  a  certain  level,  naturally  lifts  the  float.  The 
latter  has  previously  been  set  at  a  point,  and  when  dis- 
turbed automatically  closes  the  door  of  the  compartment 
and  simultaneously  the  officer  on  the  bridge  receives 
intimation  of  the  circumstance  by  the  tell-tale  number 
referring  to  the  aff"ected  compartment  coming  into  view 
upon  his  indicator.  Seeing  that  such  a  contingency  in  a 
modern  liner  is  very  remote,  the  float  gear  is  seldom  in- 
corporated, as  the  devolution  of  responsibility  upon 
automatic  appliances,  which  have  an  unhappy  tendency 
to  go  wrong  at  a  critical  moment,  is  not  to  be  recommended. 
Moreover,  the  introduction  of  such  auxiliary  measures  tends 
to  complicate  an  otherwise  simple  apparatus. 

Once  the  idea  was  perfected  the  German  steamship  com- 
pany, realising  its  advantages,  forthwith  incorporated  the 
system  in  their  new  boats,  and  the  additional  security 
thereby  aff"orded  was  not  lost  upon  the  travelling  public. 
For  a  time  British  and  American  shipping  companies  held 
aloof,  but  the  success  of  the  German  applications  induced 
them  to  follow  suit.  The  Teuton  shipowners  have  not  only 
applied  the  system  to  their  new  vessels,  but  are  converting 
their  existing  craft  as  well.  Practically  the  whole  fleet 
of  700,000  tons  flying  the  North  German  Lloyd  flag  is 
protected  in  this  manner.  The  Kronp  rinses  sin  Cecilie  has 
52  water-tight  bulkhead  doors,  24  of  which  are  fitted  with 
this  apparatus ;  while  the  Lusitania  and  Mauretania  are 
fitted  with  36  doors  acting  upon  this  principle. 

At  the  moment  it  is  doubtful  whether  any  vessels  afloat 
so  closely  coincide  with  the  term  "unsinkable,"  or  are  so 
safe  as  the  two  crack  Cunarders.  In  these  liners  subdivi- 
sion and  compartmenting  have  been  carried  to  the  super- 
lative degree  on  the  most  approved  scientific  lines.  The 
question  of  subdivision  was  investigated  very  searchingly 
independently  by  the  builders,  by  the  owners,  and  also  by 
the  special  committee  that  was  selected  by  the  Government 
in  the  evolution  of  the  design.     All  the  transverse  bulk- 


96     STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST   OF    THE    WORLD 

heads  are  carried  up  from  the  bottom  to  the  level  of  the 
upper  deck.  Where  it  was  found  impossible  to  take  the 
protection  in  a  continuous  vertical  line  the  bulkhead  is 
carried  to  the  lower  deck,  and  thence  in  steps  to  the  upper 
deck,  achieving  exactly  the  same  end  as  if  the  bulkhead 
were  a  perpendicular  wall.  The  protection  of  the  engine- 
room  and  the  longitudinal  bulkheads  are  particularly 
noticeable.  The  boilers,  as  described  in  another  chapter, 
are  set  across  the  width  of  the  ship,  and  divided  into  four 
groups  by  intervening  bulkheads.  On  either  side  there  is 
a  longitudinal  bunker,  reaching  practically  the  full  length 
of  the  boiler  space,  and  for  some  280  feet  of  the  total  length 
of  the  ship  in  the  centre.  The  high  pressure  turbines  are 
located  in  separate  water-tight  compartments,  on  either  side 
of  the  vessel,  with  the  low  pressure  turbines  occupying  a 
third  compartment  between  the  two. 

Altogether  there  are  no  less  than  175  water-tight  com- 
partments, and  it  is  safe  to  assert  that  subdivision  has  never 
been  carried  to  such  limits  in  a  merchant  vessel,  either 
before  or  since.  The  disposition  of  the  coal  bunkers  and 
their  bulkheads  running  longitudinally  have  been  appre- 
ciated, as  in  the  latest  French  liner  subdivision  is  carried 
out  upon  closely  analogous  lines. 

Grounding  is  one  of  the  greatest  dangers  to  be  feared 
with  such  large  ships,  and  a  misadventure  where  consider- 
able damage  may  be  wrought.  Consequently  the  vessel  is 
fitted  with  a  double  bottom,  the  two  skins  being  spaced 
five  feet  or  so  apart  in  the  boiler-rooms  and  holds,  with  an 
increased  depth  under  the  engine  space,  and  continued  up 
on  either  side  to  the  bilge  keels.  Consequently  it  would  be 
a  bad  accident  which  penetrated  both  bottoms ;  while  if  the 
outer  wall  were  strained  and  broken,  the  water  would  be 
kept  back  by  the  inner  skin. 

It  would  be  difficult  to  conceive  an  accident  which  would 
incapacitate  or  even  sink  the  Cunarders.  Had  one  of  these 
twin  ships  met  with  the  iceberg,  instead  of  the  Titanic, 
the  chances  are  a  thousand  to  one  that  she  would  have  kept 
afloat,  if  not  long  enough  to  make  port,  at  any  rate  for 


SAFETY    AT    SEA  97 

several  hours,  to  permit  her  passengers  to  be  saved. 
In  the  case  of  the  Titanic,  once  the  hull  was  penetrated 
below  the  waterline,  there  was  nothing  to  prevent  the  ship 
being  flooded  throughout  her  complete  width,  especially  if, 
as  is  surmised,  a  rent  were  torn  along  her  side  for  a  con- 
siderable distance,  thereby  inundating  several  compart- 
ments. In  the  case  of  the  Cunarders,  had  the  iceberg 
struck  the  ship  anywhere  below  the  water-line  a  long,  ugly 
gash  undoubtedly  would  have  been  inflicted,  but  the 
longitudinal  bulkhead  would  have  proved  a  difficult  barrier 
for  the  water  to  overcome,  while  the  coal  lying  between  the 
bulkhead  and  the  skin  would  have  offered  additional  and 
appreciable  resistance.  The  ship  would  have  assumed  a 
nasty  list,  without  doubt,  but,  by  the  manipulation  of  her 
water  ballast  tanks  this  could  have  been  minimised  so  that, 
except  perhaps  for  settling  somewhat  lower  than  usual  into 
the  water,  nothing  abnormal  would  have  been  apparent 
externally. 

Probably  the  bulk  or  tank  oil  steamer  is  the  safest  type 
of  vessel  afloat.  These  craft  are  subdivided  extensively, 
both  longitudinally  and  transversely,  in  order  to  split  the 
cargo  into  small  units.  The  nature  of  the  freight  handled 
demands  that  these  bulkheads  shall  be  exceptionally  strong 
and  tight,  so  that  the  contents  of  one  space  may  not  leak 
into  another  compartment,  possibly  containing  a  different 
grade  of  spirit.  In  addition  to  this  "compartmenting " 
the  vessel  is  divided  into  three  sections  by  what  are 
known  as  coffer  dams,  placed  forward  and  aft  of  the  oil 
carrying  space.  The  coffer  dam  is  really  a  massive,  solid 
transverse  bulkhead,  or  rather  two  bulkheads,  placed  from 
four  to  five  feet  apart,  with  the  intervening  space  filled  with 
water. 

Extensive  subdivision  notwithstanding,  ample  provision 
must  or  should  be  made  for  emergencies.  In  other  words, 
in  the  event  of  a  vessel  receiving  such  a  fearful  blow  as  to 
seal  her  fate,  the  passengers  should  have  a  sporting  chance, 
at  least,  to  save  themselves.  Unfortunately  development 
has  not  kept  pace  with   progress   in   this  field.      As   the 

H 


98     STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST   OF    THE    WORLD 

foundering  of  the  Arctic  demonstrated  the  need  for  bulk- 
head subdivision,  so  the  sinking  of  the  Titanic  illustrated 
the  essential  need  of  adequate  lifeboat  facilities. 

The  outcry  following  the  disaster  of  191 2  is  by  no  means 
new.  It  followed  the  wreck  of  the  Elbe  in  the  North  Sea, 
was  re-echoed  after  the  disaster  to  the  Bourgogne,  and 
indeed  has  formed  a  popular  theme  for  theoretical  discus- 
sion after  every  stirring  catastrophe.  The  regulations 
demand  that  every  cargo  vessel  shall  carry  sufficient  boats 
on  either  side  to  accommodate  the  whole  crew  of  the  vessel. 
On  passenger  liners,  with  possibly  three  thousand  lives  at 
stake,  while  such  provision  was  more  imperative,  yet  it  was 
deemed  absolutely  impracticable.  The  provision  of  boats 
is  not  an  easy  problem  to  solve.  The  capriciousness  of  the 
ocean-going  traveller  is  a  severe  stumbling-block.  If  boats 
sufficient  to  carry  off  every  soul  aboard  were  carried  he 
would  wail  long  and  loud  about  deprivation  of  space  in 
which  to  stretch  his  legs,  or  the  forfeiture  of  some  other 
convenience.  When  a  calamity  overtakes  a  liner  he  is 
just  as  vigorous  in  his  criticisms,  because  a  sufficiency  of 
boats  are  not  carried,  assails  the  owner  for  lack  of  foresight, 
and  condemns  him  on  sight  of  criminal  negligence. 

Boats  may  be  stowed  aboard  in  sufficient  numbers  to 
meet  every  contingency,  but  that  is  not  to  say  that  every 
one  can  be  launched  when  the  emergency  arises.  It  seems 
a  simple  operation  to  swing  a  boat  over  the  side  and  to 
lower  it  into  the  water,  but  the  panic  of  shipwreck  upsets 
the  best-laid  schemes  and  calculations.  Under  these 
circumstances  it  is  essential  that  the  launching  gear  shall 
be  of  the  very  simplest  and  fool-proof  design  to  cope  with 
a  stampede.  Fortunately  this  end  has  been  met  by  the 
ingenuity  of  a  persevering  investigator,  Mr.  Axel  Welin, 
M.I.N.x'l.  The  davit  and  launching  gear  of  this  inventor 
have  attained  a  deservedly  world-wide  reputation,  since  they 
are  the  acme  of  simplicity  and  the  essence  of  reliability. 

Launching  a  boat  is  not  an  easy  task.  Unfortunately  a 
ship  when  she  meets  with  an  accident  as  a  rule  immediately 
cants  to  one  side  or  the  other.     The  result  is  that  when  the 


SAFETY    AT   SEA  99 

boats  are  swung  over  one  side  there  is  a  short,  straight  drop 
into  the  water,  while  on  the  other  side  the  bulging  hull  of 
the  vessel  thrusts  itself  into  the  way,  and  renders  a  clean 
fall  quite  impossible.  Many  ingenious  minds  have  devoted 
their  energies  towards  the  simplification  and  perfection  of 
this  task,  but  with  indifferent  success.  To-day  the  Welin 
davit  ranks  as  the  survival  of  the  fittest,  from  whatever 
point  of  view  it  is  considered. 

It  is  known  as  the  quadrant  davit,  for  the  simple  reason 
that  it  works  upon  the  quadrant  principle.  The  davit 
comprises  a  metal  arm  which  is  pivoted  on  a  travelling  nut 
working  in  a  frame  fixed  to  the  vessel's  deck.  The  upper 
end  of  this  swinging  arm  curved  over  the  boat  carries 
the  blocks  suspending  it.  The  lower  end  of  the  davit  is 
built  in  the  form  of  a  quadrant  which  has  teeth  engaging 
with  a  rack  at  the  bottom  of  the  supporting  frame.  The 
davit  is  operated  by  a  crank  handle  and  an  endless  screw, 
threaded  through  the  travelling  nut,  with  the  result  that 
when  the  handle  is  turned  in  one  direction  or  the  other,  the 
quadrant  rolls  backwards  or  forwards  along  the  rack, 
swinging  the  boat  either  out  or  in.  When  the  boat  is 
stalled,  it  is  resting  on  the  chocks  on  the  vessel's  deck,  but 
directly  the  handle  is  turned,  the  chocks  are  knocked  out 
of  the  way  and  the  boat  is  swung  clear.  Once  the  boat 
is  over  the  vessel's  side  it  is  a  simple  matter  to  pay  out  the 
two  ropes,  one  on  each  davit,  to  allow  the  boat  to  fall  until 
it  reaches  the  water.  Having  received  its  load,  the  move- 
ment of  a  simple  attachment  cuts  it  adrift,  so  that  the 
passengers  may  row  clear  of  the  ship. 

The  advantage  of  this  system  is  its  elasticity.  It  may 
so  happen  that  the  boat  must  be  swung  a  considerable 
distance  over  the  side,  or  perhaps  it  may  be  necessary  to 
stow  two  boats  side  by  side  on  the  vessel's  deck.  In 
the  latter  event  the  davit  is  given  a  longer  travel  so  that 
it  can  roll  further  inboard.  The  first  boat  can  be 
picked  up  and  lowered,  and  the  quadrant  then  sv.ung  over 
to  pick  up  the  inner  boat  and  to  deposit  it  also  in  the 
water. 


loo    STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST  OF   THE   WORLD 

The  invention  is  not  confined  to  one  form,  but  it  can 
be  modified  to  meet  all  and  practically  every  requirement. 
The  boat  which  when  slung  inboard  and  permitted  to  rest 
upon  the  deck,  owing  to  its  width  and  bulk  obviously 
occupies  considerable  deck  space,  which  may  be  devoted 
profitably  to  better  purposes.  The  inventor,  Mr.  Axel 
Welin,  sought  to  remedy  this  drawback,  and  accordingly 
devised  a  conspicuous  improvement,  in  which  the  upper 
half  of  the  davit  is  of  different  design,  being  curved  in 
such  a  way  that  the  boat  may  be  held  suspended  in  a 
rigid  position  within  the  bend  by  suitable  devices  and 
chocks.  In  this  instance  the  boat  is  carried  in  the  air  clear 
of  the  deck,  yet  just  as  ready  for  instant  use  as  in  the 
former  and  more  generally  practised  method.  There  is  no 
greater  demand  upon  the  manual  effort  to  swing  out  and 
lower  the  boat,  because  the  design  is  thought  out  so  care- 
fully that  perfect  balancing  and  simple  powerful  leverage 
are  obtained  to  facilitate  the  various  operations.  Quite 
half  the  space  required  in  deck  stowage  is  saved,  and  in 
connection  with  a  comparatively  small  vessel  this  is  an 
important  consideration. 

When  this  simple  and  ingenious  invention  appeared  on 
the  market,  naturally  it  was  assailed  with  a  whole  sheaf  of 
objections.  Shipowners  had  become  well  wedded  to  the 
system,  which,  as  one  architect  remarked,  "had  probably 
been  in  operation  since  the  days  of  the  Ark,"  and  were 
tardy  to  depart  from  the  orthodox.  One  objection  took  a 
very  pointed  turn.  What  would  happen  if  the  gear  got 
frozen  up  ?  Upon  this  point  the  inventor  could  offer  no 
conclusive  reply,  inasmuch  as  opportunities  never  had  pre- 
sented themselves  to  him  to  test  its  capabilities  under  such 
conditions.  Besides,  any  boat  gear  would  be  rendered 
well-nigh  inoperative  with  ice  and  snow  clogging  every- 
thing, and  it  is  doubtful  whether  it  could  be  got  clear  very 
quickly,  if  at  all.  However,  one  of  the  German  companies 
decided  to  make  an  experiment.  Two  boats  were  fitted  on 
this  principle,  and  the  captain  received  strict  injunction? 
to  get  the  gear  frozen  up  if  he  could,  and  then  to  ascertain 


SAFETY    AT    SEA  loi 

its  workability  or  otherwise.  The  captain  obeyed  the 
injunctions  to  the  letter,  but  it  took  him  nearly  two  years 
to  do  it.  Then  he  replied  that  before  the  gear  could  be 
brought  into  operation,  he  had  to  smash  the  ice  on  the 
frame  base  before  it  would  work. 

Scarcely  had  the  report  come  home  when  it  was  an- 
nounced that  the  inventor  had  met  the  new  situation.  The 
quadrant  was  fitted  with  teeth  which,  as  the  operating 
handle  was  revolved,  were  sufficient  to  crush  all  the  ice 
collected  upon  the  rack.  This  objection,  so  soon  as  it  was 
proved,  was  overcome. 

Other  critics  maintained  that  the  system  would  impose 
heavy  strains  upon  the  deck.  This  fear  was  dispelled  very 
conclusively.  A  5,500  ton  vessel  was  shipping  coals  on 
the  Clyde,  when  for  some  reason  or  other  she  assumed  an 
ominous  list.  The  captain  could  only  conceive  one  rapid 
means  of  restoring  her  to  the  normal  position.  The  boats 
slung  on  the  Welin  davits,  on  the  opposite  side,  were  filled 
with  water  and  run  out.  In  this  way  a  counterweight  of 
sixty  tons  was  obtained,  and  the  boats  were  kept  in  the 
out-swung  position  with  their  loads,  until  the  vessel's 
list  had  been  corrected.  The  vessel's  deck  revealed  no 
evidences  of  having  suffered  from  the  unusual  treatment. 
This  result  effectively  disposed  of  the  apprehensions  as  to 
deck  straining. 

By  means  of  the  Welin  davit  the  boats  in  time  of  danger 
may  be  slung  out  in  far  less  time  than  is  possible  with  the 
ordinary  davits,  as  comparative  tests  have  demonstrated  in 
no  uncertain  manner ;  while,  when  a  vessel  has  taken  a  list, 
the  boats  may  be  run  out  and  lowered  with  less  risk  of 
being  smashed  against  the  hull.  In  one  instance  where  the 
liner  had  heeled  over  11  degrees,  the  boat  was  lowered  into 
the  water  from  the  high  side  by  this  type  of  davit  in  45 
seconds.  When  the  ship  is  rolling  to  a  fair  degree,  it  has 
been  found  possible  to  achieve  the  same  end  by  the  aid  of 
four  men  in  less  than  60  seconds,  without  the  boat  suffer- 
ing in  any  way.  It  must  also  be  remembered  that  the 
possibility  of  the  davit  being  swung  farther  inboard  to  pick 


102     STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST  OF  THE   WORLD 

up  a  second  boat  is  another  outstanding  feature,  as  it 
doubles  the  capacity  of  the  davit  without  the  introduction 
of  further  complications,  such  as  pushing  the  second  boat 
towards  the  taffrail  before  picking  it  up. 

Recently,  the  question  has  been  discussed  energetically 
as  to  whether  the  boats  are  not  really  carried  upon  the 
wrong  deck.  Liners  have  grown  so  enormously  in  height, 
that  the  practice  of  placing  them  upon  the  highest  deck  has 
introduced  further  difficulties,  as  well  as  the  necessity  for 
the  passengers,  in  the  moment  of  danger,  to  have  to  fight 
their  way  up  four  or  five  staircases.  The  Titanic  disaster 
revealed  the  shortcomings  of  this  practice,  and  accordingly 
on  one  of  the  latest  gigantic  liners  the  whole  method  is 
changed  completely.  The  boats  are  carried  by  what  is 
known  as  the  overframe  "Welin  Lower  Deck  Davit"  upon 
one  of  the  lower  decks.  The  advantages  are  obvious.  The 
boats  will  be  stationed  at  a  more  convenient  centre,  where 
the  crush  of  passengers  is  certain  to  be  greatest  in  time  of 
panic,  and  at  the  same  time  will  be  placed  nearer  the 
water.  Mr.  Axel  Welin,  furthermore,  has  introduced 
another  distinct  improvement  in  the  form  of  a  "Boat 
control."  It  comprises  a  system  in  which  the  winch 
governing  the  lowering  and  hoisting  operations  is  actuated 
by  a  power-driven  shaft.  Each  davit  has  a  local  control, 
and  all  complications  in  the  form  of  clutches,  reversing 
gear,  and  so  forth,  are  eliminated.  At  the  same  time  the 
control  is  so  simple  that  it  can  be  operated  literally  by  the 
little  finger  when  lowering.  Wire  ropes  are  used  in  this 
latest  modification,  carried  either  in  covered  channels  or 
across  or  underneath  the  deck.  In  the  latter  instance  the 
control  itself  is  placed  beneath  the  deck.  By  this  means 
increased  efficiency  is  obtained,  with  a  simplification  of 
the  apparatus,  as  well  as  certainty  of  action.  Obviously, 
so  far  as  the  power-drive  is  concerned,  this  is  only  requisite 
for  lifting  the  boat,  as  its  own  weight  accomplishes  the 
lowering  action. 

The   ordinary   type   of   lifeboat,    being   bulky,   occupies 
considerable  space,  and  obviously,  if  sufficient  boats  were 


llli;    SlMri.KST    AND    OriCKEST    BOAT-LALNCHINC.    CHAR 
The  Welin  IJavit,  showing  boat  swung  out  ;   also  toothed  quadrant  and  rack. 


TIIK    VALl'E    OK    THK    OL  AORAX  I     BOAT    HAVH 

An  outstanding  feature  of  the  Welin  in\ention  is  that  two  boats  may  be  served 
by  one  davit,  thereby  doubling  its  efficiency. 


i 


:iC^ 


Tin-:    SLB.MARINE    BELL    IX    ISE 


Rung  bj'  electricity  on  lighthouse  ;  by  compressed  air  or  other  mechanical  means  on  lightship; 
by  the  motion  of  the  waves  on  buoy.     The  receivers  are  placed  port  and  starboard  on 
board  ship  with  communication  to  the  navigating  bridge. 


TWO    TYPES    OF    THE    SIHMAKINE    HELL 

Compressed  air  bull  at  luft  used  generally  on  lightships.     Interior  of  electric  bell,  showing 
oi)erating  mechanism,  in  centre  ;  same  bell  comiilete  at  right. 


SAFETY    AT   SEA  103 

to  be  carried  to  cope  with,  say,  3000  people,  the  passengers 
would  have  to  forfeit  a  very  considerable  proportion  of  the 
space  on  the  deck,  otherwise  used  for  promenade  purposes. 
This  situation  has  been  met  by  resort  to  collapsible  and 
semi-collapsible  boats,  which,  being  light  and  capable  of 
stowage  within  a  small  space,  especially  when  nested — 
packed  one  on  top  of  the  other — enable  sufficient  boats  to 
be  carried  to  take  off  every  passenger  and  member  of  the 
crew.  Rafts  have  been  devised  also,  but  the  generally 
conceived  device  of  this  character  is  practically  useless, 
especially  in  a  sea,  as  it  is  liable  to  be  broken  up  by  the 
waves.  Then  it  is  essential  that  as  little  space  as  possible 
on  board  ship  should  be  occupied  by  articles  which  cannot 
be  turned  to  account  when  not  in  use  and  without  impair- 
ing their  designed  purposes.  The  Linkleter  life-raft  deck- 
seat  is  an  excellent  means  of  placing  the  practical  to 
profitable  advantage.  On  board  they  resemble  the  con- 
ventional deck-seats,  with  their  backs.  They  measure 
about  nine  feet  in  length,  and  each  is  fitted  with  four  metal 
air  cases  to  secure  buoyancy.  As  a  seat  it  is  secured  to  the 
deck  by  a  lashing  over  a  hooked  hinge-pin  at  either  end. 
When  the  front  half  of  the  seat  is  lifted  upwards  the  hooks 
are  upset  and  the  seat  is  released,  at  the  same  time  flatten- 
ing itself  out.  Another  point  is  that  should  the  deck  upon 
which  the  seat  is  placed  become  submerged,  owing  to  its 
buoyancy,  the  front  part  of  the  seat  immediately  floats  up- 
wards, turning  round  the  attaching  hook  so  that  the  seat 
comes  adrift  and  floats  to  the  surface  in  the  form  of  a  raft. 
The  novelty  of  the  device  is  the  elimination  of  the  necessity 
to  release  the  seat  and  to  flatten  it  out  by  hand. 

Another  Linkleter  life-raft,  which  has  been  adopted  upon 
the  Canadian  Pacific  liners,  is  that  adaptable  to  either 
sailing  or  rowing.  The  little  deck  is  supported  on  either 
side  by  a  cigar-shaped  cylinder.  Each  raft  has  twelve 
distinct  air-cases,  and  this  is  adequate  to  carry  forty  persons 
and  to  support  as  many  others  as  can  cling  to  it.  In 
this  instance  either  side  of  the  raft  serves  equally  well  as 
the  supporting  deck.     No  care  is  necessary  in  throwing  it 


104    STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST  OF  THE   WORLD 

overboard,  because  either  one  side  or  the  other  must  be 
exposed,  since  it  cannot  float  edgewise. 

The  lessons  of  the  marine  disaster  of  191 2  have  not  been 
allowed  to  pass  unheeded.  All  the  great  passenger  lines 
are  carrying  a  sufficiency  of  life-saving  appliances  to  meet 
every  demand.  The  French  liner  France,  for  instance, 
though  comprising  a  floating  community  of  2,500  souls,  is 
fitted  with  22  large  and  2  small  life-boats,  together  with 
32  life-rafts,  sufficient  to  carry  in  the  aggregate  2,788 
persons. 

Yet  all  the  devices  to  prevent  loss  of  life  are  not  to  be 
compared  with  means  of  avoiding  danger.  The  two 
greatest  achievements  in  this  direction  are  the  submarine 
bell  and  wireless  telegraphy.  Both  have  rendered  ocean 
travelling  incalculably  safer  than  it  was  ten  years  ago. 

Sounds  transmitted  through  the  air  are  subject  to  extra- 
ordinary aberrations,  and  this  factor  renders  dependence 
upon  syrens,  gun-cotton  detonations  and  whistles  from 
lighthouses  and  lightships,  or  other  vessels,  during  a  thick 
fog,  utterly  unreliable.  The  sounds  may  reach  the  ears 
of  the  commander  of  a  liner  groping  through  the  fog,  and 
be  so  faint  as  to  lead  him  to  conclude  that  he  is  well  clear 
of  danger  when  in  reality  he  is  right  upon  it.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  reports  may  be  so  loud  that  he  is  induced  to 
sheer  off,  when  as  a  matter  of  fact  there  is  no  necessity 
for  him  to  alter  his  course.  Yet  a  sound  produced  under 
water  can  be  heard  clearly  and  distinctly  a  considerable 
distance  aw^ay,  and  is  not  subject  to  any  interference  or 
aberration  during  its  transmission. 

This  idea  of  warning  the  mariner  occurred  to  a  young 
American  scientist,  Mr.  A.  J.  Mundy  of  Boston,  who  sub- 
sequently secured  the  collaboration  of  a  famous  American 
physicist.  Professor  Elisha  Gray.  In  the  first  experiments 
they  were  content  to  use  the  bells  which  serve  various 
purposes  on  land,  but  these  w-ere  found  to  be  useless.  As 
a  result  of  four  years'  ceaseless  investigations,  they  dis- 
covered that  a  somewhat  high  musical  note  which,  useless 
in  the  air,  when  submerged  produced  the  best  tone-carrying 


SAFETY    AT    SEA  105 

characteristics.  A  bell  weighing  a  thousand  pounds  was 
fashioned  and  submerged  off  a  cruel  stretch  of  the  Atlantic 
coast  in  sixty  feet  of  water  1,500  feet  from  shore.  It  was 
connected  to  the  latter  by  an  electric  cable,  and  was  in 
service  for  a  whole  year.  It  was  eminently  successful, 
although  as  a  result  of  further  tests  it  was  found  possible 
to  secure  equally  efficient  results  with  a  smaller  and  much 
lighter  bell,  the  tolling  of  which  could  be  heard  sixteen 
miles  away. 

Another  difficulty  experienced  was  in  connection  with 
the  detector.  On  board  ship  so  many  and  varied  local 
sounds  are  produced — "ship's  noises,"  they  are  called — 
that  it  was  found  difficult  to  sort  out  the  tone  of  the  bell. 
This  really  proved  to  be  the  most  difficult  part  of  the  in- 
vention to  solve  satisfactorily.  Mr.  Mundy,  however,  by 
means  of  a  simple  experiment  succeeded  in  establishing  a 
point  which  proved  to  be  the  crux  of  the  problem.  He 
took  an  empty  kettle  and  within  it  placed  a  tumbler, 
filled  with  a  chemical  solution  he  had  made,  and  also  a 
very  sensitive  microphone.  The  tumbler  was  so  placed 
that  it  was  in  contact  with  the  wall  of  the  kettle.  The 
kettle  was  floated  at  one  end  of  a  tank,  and  a  bell  was  rung 
under  water  at  the  opposite  extremity.  The  tones  of  the 
bell  were  heard  distinctly.  The  experimenter  then  removed 
the  microphone  from  the  tumbler,  and  fixed  the  microphone 
to  the  kettle's  side.  On  this  occasion  the  sounds  of  the 
bell,  although  heard,  were  very  faint.  Obviously,  as  this 
simple  experiment  showed,  the  peculiar  solution  within  the 
tumbler  and  its  position  played  an  important  part  in 
collecting  and  intensifying  the  sound. 

In  determining  the  correct  position  for  the  detector  on 
board  ship  it  was  therefore  necessary  to  select  a  point  where 
the  "ship's  noises"  offered  the  minimum  of  interference. 
Then  it  was  discovered  if  the  solution  contained  in  the 
microphone  receptacle  were  of  greater  density  than  the 
surrounding  sea  water,  and  the  microphone  were  tuned  to 
tones  of  high  pitch  and  not  low  vibrations,  that  the  tone 
of  the  bell  could  be  heard  quite  distinctly  and  free  from  the 


io6    STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST  OF  THE   WORLD 

local  sounds.  The  latter  apparently  pass  along  the  hull  of 
the  boat,  and  do  not  enter  the  microphone  apparatus  at  all. 

Two  detectors  or  receivers  are  used.  They  are  placed  in 
the  bow,  one  on  either  side  of  the  ship,  and  are  attached 
directly  to  the  plating  of  the  hull.  A  wire  leads  from  each 
detector  to  the  bridge,  and  this  is  connected  to  a  receiver, 
similar  to  that  of  the  ordinary  telephone.  The  navigator 
either  may  apply  the  receivers  to  his  ear  and  thereby  locate 
from  which  side  the  sounds  are  received,  or  he  may  consult 
an  indicator,  which  fulfils  a  similar  purpose.  If  the  officer 
in  the  former  case  faces  the  bow,  and  by  listening  at  the 
receiver  ascertains  whether  the  warning  is  audible,  say,  to 
the  right  side,  but  cannot  be  detected  from  the  receiver 
attached  to  the  left-hand  side  of  the  ship,  he  learns  that 
the  danger  spot  is  on  his  starboard,  and  vice  versa  if  the 
left  and  not  the  right-hand  detector  emits  the  warning. 
If  the  sounds  are  to  be  heard  from  both  detectors,  then 
it  is  evident  that  the  ship  is  driving  headlong  into  danger. 
In  the  most  approved  forms  the  sounds  can  be  picked  up 
quite  easily  from  a  distance  varying  between  sixteen  and 
twenty  miles,  so  that  the  navigator  receives  ample  warning 
of  his  peril. 

Directly  the  invention  demonstrated  its  reliability  and 
positive  indications,  it  was  adopted  widely.  To-day  the 
submarine  bell  signalling  apparatus  forms  an  important 
part  of  the  equipment  on  every  large  liner,  and  never  yet 
has  led  the  mariner  astray.  The  bells  have  been  improved 
vastly,  and  may  be  operated  either  by  electricity  or  com- 
pressed air,  or  mechanically.  It  has  come  to  be  regarded 
as  an  indispensable  adjunct  to  lightships  and  lighthouses, 
and  also  in  connection  with  buoys,  the  tolling  of  the  bell 
in  this  instance  being  carried  out  by  the  motion  of  the 
waves.  While  the  signal  cannot  convey  any  intimation 
as  to  how  distant  the  ship  is  from  the  danger,  yet  a  captain 
is  able  to  determine  whether  he  is  approaching  or  clearing 
the  peril  by  the  varying  intensity  of  the  sounds.  Naturally 
as  he  draws  closer  and  closer  the  warning  becomes  more 
and  more  distinct;  while  on  the  other  hand,  when  moving 


SAFETY    AT    SEA  107 

away  it  grows  fainter  and  fainter,  until  at  last  it  is  lost 
altogether,  through  the  ship  having  passed  beyond  the 
audible  range  of  the  tolling. 

After  all  is  said  and  done,  despite  the  elaborate  precau- 
tions which  the  ship  designer,  builder  and  owner  take  to 
secure  complete  safety  at  sea,  the  public  has  the  final 
word.  Speed  and  comfort  are  now  the  ruling  considera- 
tions, and  the  traveller  is  prone  to  grumble  if  a  vessel  is 
a  few  hours  late,  or  there  is  any  interference  with  his 
convenience.  A  disaster  horrifies  the  world,  and  a  panic 
ensues  in  which  the  most  extreme  and  impracticable 
measures  are  demanded.  Fortunately,  the  public  memory 
is  short.  There  is  a  check,  and  a  popular  outburst  for  a 
few  days.  Then  the  world  settles  down  to  things  as  they 
were  before  the  calamity,  content  to  depend  upon  the  sharp 
eye  and  steady  hand  of  those  entrusted  with  the  vessel's 
safety.  Meanwhile  those  responsible  for  the  creation  and 
management  of  these  speedy  ocean  monsters  are  quietly 
seeking  to  eliminate  dependence  upon  the  human  factor 
more  and  more,  because  they  are  fully  alive  to  its  fallibility. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  public  must  be  prepared  to  bear  its 
full  proportion  of  the  risk,  and  must  not  complain  when 
occasionally  the  penalty  for  speed  and  luxury  is  exacted. 


CHAPTER    VIII 

THE   FLOATING   TOWN 

Reference  is  made  so  often  to  the  modern  liner  as  a 
"floating  town  "  that  the  average  person  has  come  to  regard 
the  description  in  the  light  of  a  synonym  or  colloquialism. 
As  a  matter  of  fact  the  term  is  as  correct  in  the  actual  as 
in  the  figurative  sense.  Many  a  rising  township  would 
be  proud  to  boast  a  population  which  one  of  the  foremost 
liners  often  carries.  If  a  census  were  taken  of  the  ships 
speeding  simultaneously  between  North  America  and 
Europe,  for  instance,  it  would  be  found  that  the  aggregate 
of  floating  inhabitants  would  not  be  far  short  of  40,000  in 
the  height  of  the  season.  A  similar  count  among  the  ships 
plying  between  Europe,  the  Antipodes  and  other  parts,  and 
afloat  at  one  time,  would  show  a  total  approaching  100,000. 
These  figures  appear  to  be  huge,  but  that  they  are  under, 
rather  than  over,  the  mark  may  be  realised  from  a  little 
reflection  concerning  the  carrying  capacity  of  the  largest 
of  these  craft.  The  passengers  of  all  classes  alone  repre- 
sent a  total  ranging  up  to  4000,  while  the  army  required 
for  the  handling  of  the  floating  island  may  be  anything 
between  700  and  1,200  in  number.  It  is  no  uncommon 
circumstance  for  eight  of  the  crack  Atlantic  liners  when 
afloat  at  one  and  the  same  time  to  have  nearly  20,000  people 
distributed  among  them. 

But  the  vessel  bears  a  still  stronger  resemblance  to  a 
modern  town  than  mere  population  conveys.  Here  in 
one  corner  of  the  steel  hull  is  an  electric  lighting  station, 
capable  of  supplying  sufficient  energy  to  meet  the  demands 
of  a  town  of  100,000  people ;  in  another  corner  is  a  complete 
refrigeration  plant  keeping  cold  storage  houses  going ;  in 
another  part  are  the  waterworks  supplying  fresh  soft  water 

108 


THE    FLOATING   TOWN  109 

for  a  thousand  and  one  purposes.  In  a  fourth  quarter  is 
the  fire  station,  while  on  a  lonely  stretch  on  one  of  the 
decks  is  the  isolation  hospital  for  infectious  diseases.  One 
saunters  along  deck,  and,  desiring  a  cup  of  coffee  or  a 
whisky-and-soda,  drops  into  the  marine  counterpart  of  the 
luxurious  caf6  of  the  city.  Or  perhaps  one  fancies  a 
chop.  There  is  the  grill-room,  excelling  in  comfort  and 
luxury  the  finest  restaurant  to  be  found  on  dry  land.  In 
fact,  every  convenience,  with  the  exception,  perhaps,  of  a 
trolley  tram-car,  motor-omnibus,  and  golf-links,  is  found 
upon  board  ship. 

Each  of  these  public  facilities  possesses  its  individual 
interest,  and  more  than  half  of  them  are  concealed  from  the 
traveller's  eye,  being  buried  in  obscure  parts  of  the  vessel's 
gloomy  depths.  It  seems  impossible  to  be  able  to  accom- 
modate in  a  small  space  on  the  Mauretania  an  electric 
station  which  would  do  justice  to  a  town  of  100,000  people, 
but  such  is  the  case.  If  one  remembers  that  electric  energy 
has  to  be  supplied  to  no  less  than  6000  electric  incan- 
descent lamps,  each  of  i6-candle  power,  all  of  which  may 
be  burning  at  one  moment,  then  doubt  gives  way  to 
wonder.  In  the  case  of  this  particular  liner  the  electric 
lighting  station  is  not  in  a  suburb,  but  in  the  auxiliary 
machinery-room.  Here  there  are  four  Parsons  turbo-genera- 
tors disposed  in  two  water-tight  compartments,  so  that 
should  one  room  be  flooded  the  other  may  be  kept  going. 
Each  of  these  small  machines  makes  1,200  revolutions  per 
minute  to  develop  4000  amperes  at  no  volts.  The  large 
switchboard  is  divided  also,  so  that,  should  any  accident 
befall  one  half,  the  other  still  may  be  kept  in  operation, 
the  ship  thereby  being  spared  a  sudden  transition  from 
dazzling  brilliancy  to  inky  darkness.  The  switch-board 
is  of  the  most  modern  description,  and  could  not  be  rivalled 
in  any  land  station.  From  these  panels  no  fewer  than  250 
miles  of  cables  of  all  sizes  and  character,  varying  according 
to  the  work  to  be  performed  by  the  energy  conveyed, 
radiate  to  all  parts  of  the  ship.  In  these  Cunarders, 
besides    the    lighting    of    the    lamps    in    the    private    and 


no    STEAMSHIP  CONQUEST  OF  THE   WORLD 

public  rooms,  as  well  as  the  engine-rooms  and  stokeholds, 
facilities  are  provided  for  working  a  24-inch  searchlight, 
since  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  these  two  vessels  are 
intended  for  use  as  auxiliary  armed  cruisers  in  time  of 
war. 

But  electric  lighting  is  only  one  convenience  operated 
by  this  handy  source  of  energy.  Distributed  throughout  the 
ship  are  a  thousand  and  one  electric  motors  of  all  powers 
and  sizes,  from  a  |-horse-power  motor  driving  a  boot- 
cleaning  machine,  to  a  50-horse-power  motor  actuating  the 
fans  which  supply  the  forced  draught  to  the  furnaces.  The 
hoists  which  lower  and  raise  the  passengers'  luggage  from 
the  deep  holds,  the  elevators,  ventilating  fans — in  short, 
everything  possible  of  movement  by  power  is  operated  by 
this  means.  Electricity  is  the  maid-of-all-work  on  board 
the  modern  ocean  greyhound. 

In  the  olden  days  the  water  intended  for  domestic  pur- 
poses had  to  be  carried  aboard  in  barrels  or  stored  in  tanks, 
somewhat  after  the  practice  wdth  railway  trains.  Such  a 
method,  however,  would  be  quite  impracticable  nowa- 
days, when  some  3000  passengers  and  crew  demand  atten- 
tion, because,  on  the  basis  of  only  30  gallons  per  day  per 
passenger,  some  500,000  gallons  of  fresh  water,  represent- 
ing a  dead  weight  of  over  2000  tons  for  a  six  days' 
voyage,  would  need  to  be  stowed  somewhere  or  other  on 
board  the  ship.  Moreover,  fresh,  or  distilled,  water  is 
required  for  the  boilers  for  the  purposes  of  steam,  and 
obviously  it  is  quite  impossible  to  carry  a  reserve  on  board 
for  all  these  purposes.  The  engineer  has  devised  ways 
and  means  of  drawing  all  requirements  in  these  direc- 
tions from  the  ocean  itself  by  evaporating  and  distilling 
machines,  so  that  the  modern  liner  carries  a  complete  water- 
works. This  installation  upon  the  Mauretania  is  able  to 
supply  no  fewer  than  18,000  gallons  of  drinking  water  and 
15,000  gallons  of  water  for  washing  and  bath  purposes 
during  the  24  hours,  so  that  so  long  as  the  pumps  and 
plant  can  be  kept  going,  there  is  no  danger  of  the  ship 
running  short  of  this  essential  commodity. 


THK    ELECTRIC    LIGHTIXG    STATION    OF    THE    FLOATING    CITY 

The  power-room  and  switchboard  of  the  Lusitania. 


Hy  ptriiiission  of  tlic  '•  Shipbiiildfr  "] 

A    LUXCRIOrS    FLAT    IN    THE    FLOATING    CITY 
A  resral  suite  on  the  MauTctaiiia. 


THK    VERANDAH    CAFE 

The  most  popular  corner  on  the  Mau>elanid s  decks.     The  evergreens 
convey  the  impression  of  shore  comforts. 


A    RKSTAIKAXT    O.N    TIIK    IlK.Il    SKAS 

The  maj^nilicent  Diiiinj;  -Saloon  of  the  Royal  Mail  Slcani  I'acket  Atccxdian.     Sumptuous  appoint- 
ment is  not  confined  to  the  Xorth  Atlantic  trasellcrs.  as  this  illustration  proves. 


THE    FLOATING   TOWN  iii 

Gone  are  the  days  when  fresh  meat,  vegetables,  milk 
and  other  comestibles  were  impracticable,  even  on  the 
shortest  voyages.  The  liner  of  to-day  carries  a  complete 
cold-storage  equipment,  where  every  description  of  perish- 
able comestible  may  be  kept  in  the  pink  of  condition. 
The  cold  chambers  are  insulated  with  granulated  cork, 
or  some  other  suitable  medium,  and  here  carcasses  of  beef, 
mutton,  poultry,  game,  bacon,  also  milk,  fruits,  vegetables, 
as  well  as  malt  liquors  and  drinking  water,  may  be  kept 
preserved  at  any  desired  temperature.  The  ingenious  mind 
that  first  conceived  the  means  of  keeping  these  chambers 
at  a  low  temperature  for  preservation  bestowed  an  incal- 
culable boon  upon  the  travelling  public.  It  is  possible 
now  to  enjoy  a  varied  menu  in  a  tropical  sea,  hundreds 
of  miles  out,  composed  of  dishes  as  fresh  as  are  to  be  found 
upon  dry  land  anywhere.  I  have  been  in  the  cold  storage 
rooms  when  the  thermometer  has  registered  ioo°  or  more 
on  the  open  decks  above,  and  collected  snow  from  the  pipes 
around  the  chamber.  The  vegetables  are  as  crisp  and 
cold  as  are  to  be  found  in  any  market  garden  in  the  middle 
of  winter,  the  leaves  breaking  like  glass;  while  the  meats 
appear  as  fresh  and  brightly  coloured  as  if  they  had  just 
emerged  from  the  slaughter-house,  although,  possibly,  they 
have  been  on  board  for  a  round  week  or  two.  The  gourmet 
wanders  through  the  ten  or  twelve  dishes  on  the  menu, 
comprising  every  type  of  edible,  and  marvels  at  the  juici- 
ness and  flavour  of  the  viands,  but  it  is  doubtful  whether 
he  ever  gives  a  thought  as  to  how  his  epicurean  tastes  are 
met  in  mid-ocean,  and  in  a  broiling  climate.  He  calls  for 
a  bottle  of  nutty,  full-bodied  wine,  and  enjoys  its  refreshing 
coolness  with  eminent  satisfaction,  but  regards  its  condition 
as  a  mere  matter  of  course.  If  he  is  asked  how  they 
contrive  to  keep  the  liquid  so  cool,  he  merely  replies  non- 
chalantly, "Oh,  on  the  ice  !  "  never  giving  a  thought  as  to 
how  the  ice  is  obtained,  or  retained,  on  board  a  ship. 
Verily  he  owes  a  debt  of  gratitude  to  the  inventor  of  the 
refrigerating  machinery  which  is  humming  away  merrily 
in    the    engine-room    below,    pumping    the    temperature- 


112     STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST  OF  THE   WORLD 

reducing  and  preserving  brine  through  the  coils  of  pipes 
distributed  round  the  cold-storage  chambers. 

When  a  passenger  on  the  top  deck  wishes  to  make  an 
inquiry  of  the  steward,  purser,  or  some  other  official,  or 
wishes  to  converse  with  a  travelling  companion  residing 
two  or  three  decks  below,  or  at  the  other  end  of  the  ship, 
he  does  not  embark  upon  a  doubtful  hunt  afoot  for  his 
quarry ;  he  merely  picks  up  a  telephone  receiver  in  his  room 
and  calls  up  the  exchange,  buried  somewhere  in  the  depths 
of  the  vessel.  He  communicates  his  wishes  to  the  "hello- 
girl,"  and  in  less  than  a  couple  of  seconds  is  switched 
through  to  the  individual  with  whom  he  desires  to  talk. 
The  telephone  is  one  of  the  latest  conveniences  placed  on 
board  ship,  and  now  that  decks  are  lengthy  and  numerous, 
and  the  search  for  officials  or  other  cabins  is  no  easy  matter, 
it  undoubtedly  constitutes  a  far-reaching  convenience. 
When  the  ship  reaches  port,  the  liner's  telephone  system 
is  joined  to  the  network  on  land  by  means  of  a  flexible 
connecting  link,  and  passengers  on  board  are  brought  into 
direct  touch  with  any  subscriber  ashore,  either  locally  or 
upon  the  trunk  systems.  Thus  the  financial  magnate  sail- 
ing from  Liverpool  can  keep  in  conversation  with  his  office 
in  London,  or  while  at  New  York  may  hold  discourse  with 
any  town  in  connection  with  that  city,  right  up  to  the 
moment  of  the  vessel's  departure.  The  telephonic  system 
on  board  the  twentieth-century  ocean  greyhound  in  its 
completeness  and  flexibility  might  be  envied  by  a  large 
town.  Indeed,  the  floating  town  has  a  great  advantage, 
because  there  are  many  communities  ashore,  with  twice 
the  number  of  inhabitants,  who  are  denied  this  convenience. 

On  the  captain's  bridge,  or  in  the  navigating-room 
among  the  host  of  other  indicators  for  all  purposes  con- 
cerned with  the  handling  and  welfare  of  the  liner,  is  a 
small  indicator.  It  does  not  occupy  very  much  space,  but 
nevertheless  its  mission  is  of  far-reaching  importance.  It 
is  the  fire  alarm  !  Distributed  at  frequent  points  along  the 
vessel's  passages  are  break-glass  fire  alarms,  similar  in 
their  purpose  to  those  found  stationed  at  intervals  in  the 


THE    FLOATING   TOWN  113 

thoroughfares  of  a  city.  Should  a  conflagration  break  out 
in  a  cabin,  the  occupant  does  not  run  hither  and  thither 
crying  "Fire  I  "  and  throwing  the  whole  community  into 
a  state  of  terror;  he  merely  sounds  the  alarm,  when  the 
officials  are  brought  to  attention.  The  breaking  of  the 
glass  releases  one  tell-tale  in  the  chart- room,  and  another 
upon  an  indicator  in  the  engine-room  simultaneously,  to 
warn  the  navigator  and  the  engineer  respectively  that  the 
fire-fiend  is  loose,  at  the  same  time  intimating  the  section 
of  the  ship  in  which  the  outbreak  has  occurred.  Hand 
extinguishers  are  distributed  freely  about  the  vessel  to 
quell  a  small  conflagration,  and  these  generally  suffice  for 
the  purpose  in  the  case  of  a  cabin  outbreak,  or  a  similar 
accident  in  any  of  the  public  rooms.  But  the  communica- 
tion of  the  fact  to  the  chart-room  and  the  engine-room 
warns  the  respective  officials  of  the  accident  and  enables 
them  to  complete  their  arrangements  for  a  "district  call" 
should  the  flames  exceed  the  capacity  of  the  extinguishers. 
There  is  little  danger  to  be  feared  from  this  calamity  in  the 
residential  district  of  the  ship.  The  greatest  dangers  arise 
from  the  holds,  packed  with  cargo,  where  a  human  being 
does  not  penetrate  during  the  voyage.  But  special  pre- 
cautions have  been  provided  for  this  contingency,  as  well 
as  means  of  combating  the  flames  with  steam  jets,  water 
and  noxious  gases. 

Ventilation  is  another  important  feature  in  the  modern 
vessel.  Formerly  this  was  accomplished  by  the  aid  of  cowl 
ventilators  raised  above  the  deck,  in  the  form  of  huge  trunks 
and  each  fitted  with  a  revolving  hood  turned  towards  the 
wind,  so  that  the  breeze  blew  directly  into  the  open  mouths 
to  circulate  through  the  apartments  or  other  offices  below. 
This  unsatisfactory  method,  however,  has  been  superseded 
by  a  more  scientific  and  reliable  system,  known  as  the 
thermo-tank.  These  apparatus,  mounted  in  obscure  posi- 
tions so  as  not  to  impede  movement  on  the  decks,  are 
fitted  with  electrically  driven  fans,  which  suck  the  outer 
air,  or  exhaust  the  vitiated  atmosphere  from  below.  The 
great  advantage  of  this  method  is  that  the  temperature  of 


114    STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST  OF  THE   WORLD 

the  air  may  be  regulated  to  a  nicety.  If  the  outer  air  is 
cold  it  is  first  warmed  by  being  passed  over  a  steam-heated 
coil,  raised  to  any  desired  degree,  and  is  then  discharged 
into  the  passages  and  public  rooms  in  such  a  way  that  no 
draught  is  created.  The  result  is  that  no  vitiated  or 
oppressive  air  is  able  to  collect  in  any  part  of  the  ship, 
while,  at  the  same  time,  the  incoming  atmosphere  is  of 
extreme  purity,  free  from  dust  and  other  contamination. 
In  fact,  the  atmosphere  within  a  cabin,  dining-saloon, 
drawing-room,  on  a  lower  deck  or  in  an  interior  passage- 
way, is  as  bracing  as  upon  the  open  deck  above,  and  one 
is  able  to  secure  as  much  needful  ozone  as  in  the  exposed 
position  overhead. 

Probably  the  most  important  feature  of  the  whole  of  the 
vessel's  equipment  is  in  connection  with  the  commissariat. 
It  is  an  undoubted  fact  that  upon  the  crack  liners  of  to-day 
one  is  able  to  live  much  more  regally  than  in  the  finest 
hotels  ashore.  Certainly  the  menu  is  far  more  varied,  and 
more  appetising  and  dainty,  as  the  digestive  organs  of 
some,  driven  into  rebellion  by  mal-de-iner,ha\e  to  be  coaxed 
to  perform  their  natural  functions,  while  the  bracing  air 
develops  a  keen  appetite  among  others.  While  the  cuisine 
is  largely  dependent  upon  the  artifices  and  cunning  of  the 
chef  and  his  extensive  staff,  yet,  at  the  same  time,  as  bricks 
cannot  be  made  without  straw,  attractive  dishes  can  only 
be  prepared  with  a  sufficiency  of  raw  materials  both  in 
quantity  and  variety. 

The  stock  for  the  liner's  larder  reaches  mammoth  pro- 
portions. Its  regular  supply  might  tax  the  resources  of  a 
large  provision  merchant,  and  would  stagger  a  frugal 
housewife.  Every  time  the  Cunard  flyers  set  out  upon  their 
journey,  the  chief  steward  stocks  his  cold-storage  rooms 
with  the  carcasses  of  40  oxen,  60  lambs,  80  sheep,  130  pigs, 
and  10  calves,  to  vanish  in  the  forms  of  cuts  from  the  joint, 
steaks,  chops,  cutlets,  and  what  not.  Game  is  represented 
by  2000  fowls,  400  pigeons,  250  partridges,  a  similar 
number  of  grouse,  800  quail,  200  snipe,  100  brace  of 
pheasants,  350  ducks,   150  turkeys,  and  90  geese.     Three 


THE    FLOATING   TOWN  115 

turtles,  each  weighing  325  pounds,  assist  in  the  concoction 
of  soup;  while  3,500  pounds  of  ling,  12  boxes  of  herrings, 
60  boxes  of  kippers,  12  barrels  of  red  herrings,  36  boxes 
of  bloaters,  10  boxes  of  fresh  herrings,  1,500  pounds  of 
salmon,  84  boxes  of  haddocks,  and  45  boxes  of  fresh  fish, 
such  as  turbot,  sole,  plaice,  halibut,  etc.,  are  stowed  away 
to  meet  the  enormous  appetites  of  the  passengers. 

The  Deutschland  takes  on  board  just  as  heavy  and  mixed 
a  larder.  To  feed  her  1,300  passengers  for  a  week  this 
liner  requires,  among  other  things,  1,700  dozen  eggs, 
1,300  pounds  of  butter,  2,500  quarts  of  milk  and  cream. 
Some  60,000  pounds  of  potatoes  are  consumed  in  a  single 
trip,  together  with  3000  pounds  of  ham  and  bacon,  nearly 
100  crates  of  assorted  vegetables,  2,500  lettuces,  20  crates 
of  celery  and  tomatoes,  as  well  as  nearly  9000  pounds  of 
fresh  fruits  of  all  descriptions.  The  b^ker  requires  no 
fewer  than  17,000  pounds  of  flour  and  350  pounds  of  yeast 
to  convert  into  bread,  biscuits,  cakes  and  pastry.  As  to 
the  beverages,  these  are  supplied  by  some  2000  pounds  of 
coffee,  300  pounds  of  tea,  12,000  quarts  of  wine  and  other 
liquors,  nearly  4000  gallons  of  beer  carried  in  casks,  and 
3000  in  bottles,  in  addition  to  6000  bottles  of  various 
mineral  waters. 

Nothing  is  left  to  chance.  The  steamer  may  break  down 
and  be  forced  to  continue  her  voyage  only  at  very  low 
speed;  or  gales  may  rage,  delaying  her  progress.  Accord- 
ingly, the  victualling  department  must  have  a  good  margin 
in  regard  to  supplies  to  meet  such  possible  contingencies. 
Then,  again,  the  liner  may  meet  a  starving,  disabled  wind- 
jammer or  tramp  in  sore  straits,  and  this  unfortunate  is 
succoured  from  the  liner's  stores  with  a  sufficiency  to  carry 
the  lame  duck  to  the  nearest  port.  By  such  acts  of  hospital- 
ity the  needs  of  the  greyhound's  hundreds  of  passengers 
must  not  be  imperilled. 

Variety  is  the  key-note  of  the  modern  liner's  success. 

If  its  cuisine  should  bear  an  indifferent  reputation  either 

as  regards  quality,  quantity  or  variety,  it  is  shunned  by  the 

travelling  public  as  if  smitten  with  the  plague.     There  are 

I  2 


ii6    STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST  OF  THE   WORLD 

three  classes  of  passengers  for  whom  the  chief  steward  has 
to  cater,  and  it  is  quite  possible  that  as  many  as  thirty 
different  dishes  have  to  be  prepared  for  breakfast,  and  twice 
as  many  for  dinner. 

In  one  single  year  the  fleet  of  the  Norddeutscher  Lloyd 
consumed  13,000,000  pounds  of  meat  of  all  kinds,  fresh, 
dried  and  tinned;  1,250,000  pounds  of  fresh  and  dried  fish, 
in  addition  to  some  750,000  clams,  oysters  and  crawfish  ;  over 
1,300,000  pounds  of  ducks,  fowls,  turkeys  and  geese,  and 
more  than  70,000  partridges,  snipes,  hares,  etc. ;  some 
1,200,000  tins  of  meats,  fish,  fruits,  vegetables  and  other 
preserves;  67,500,000  pounds  of  assorted  provisions,  to- 
gether with  6,500,000  eggs,  and  4,500,000  oranges  and 
lemons.  The  heaviest  individual  item  during  the  year  was 
ice,  of  which  nearly  25,000,000  pounds  were  consumed, 
followed  by  20,779,000  pounds  of  potatoes.  "My  lady 
Nicotine"  was  satisfied  with  2,327,000  cigars  and  cigarettes, 
as  well  as  tobacco;  while  beverages  were  represented  by 
over  500,000  gallons  of  lager  beer,  520,000  bottles  of 
mineral  waters,  and  940,000  bottles  of  different  wines.  The 
total  expenditure  of  the  victualling  department  in  the  twelve 
months  exceeded  ;^20o,ooo,  or  $1,000,000. 

When  the  famous  French  greyhound  France  started  out 
on  her  maiden  voyage,  early  in  1912,  the  chief  steward 
concluded  that  the  requirements  of  the  passengers  on  the 
voyage  would  be  satisfied  with  9,000  pounds  of  fresh  meats, 
18  barrels  of  pate-de-fois-gras,  800  chickens,  700  pigeons, 
250  grouse,  1,100  quails,  400  ducks,  and  550  partridges. 
Some  10,000  pounds  of  various  fish  were  taken  on  board, 
together  with  600  dozen  oysters.  Other  commodities  were 
represented  by  37,000  pounds  of  potatoes;  2,250  pounds  of 
carrots;  1,800  pounds  of  onions;  2,200  pounds  of  arti- 
chokes; 1,700  pounds  of  radishes;  5,900  salads;  15,000 
pounds  of  dried  vegetables  such  as  herbs,  peas,  etc. ;  40,000 
pounds  of  flour;  35,000  eggs;  3000  pounds  of  butter; 
5,400  boxes  of  preserved  fruits;  3,750  pounds  of  cheese; 
9000  oranges,  6000  pears,  6000  apples,  389  pots  of  jam, 
and  so  forth.     Beverages  were  to  be  prepared  from   750 


THE    FLOATING    POST    OKFK  K 

are  sorted  on  tlie  Xorth-Germaii  Lloyd  liners  durins  the  jxassase  by  ("lerniaii  officials 
when  travelling  eastward,  and  by  a  United  States  statT  on  the  westward  nni. 


H     o 


<    .2 
K     to 


c  -J 


-      c/;    -= 


c      —     - 


THE    FLOATING    TOWN  117 

pounds  of  tea,  1,250  pounds  of  chocolate,  375  pounds  of 
coffee,  6,340  quarts  of  milk,  and  15,000  pounds  of  sugar.  In 
the  wine  vaults  were  stored  60,000  flagons,  comprising 
2,300  bottles  and  2000  half-bottles  of  champagne,  1,800 
bottles  of  wines,  2,500  bottles  of  beer,  1,250  bottles  of 
various  liqueurs,  5,300  bottles  of  mineral  waters,  1,500 
bottles  of  lemonade,  25,000  bottles  of  ordinary  wines,  and 
31,700  quarts  of  wine  in  bulk  for  the  crew. 

Such  a  commissariat,  for  less  than  a  six  days'  journey, 
o:  a  double  trip  across  the  Atlantic,  affords  some  insight 
into  the  cost  of  maintaining  the  victualling  department  of 
an  Atlantic  liner.  The  average  floating  town  of  about  2000 
passengers  consumes  more  in  a  week  than  a  town  of  twice 
the  population  on  dry  land  would  eat  in  a  month. 

The  handling  of  the  garbage  and  refuse,  as  well  as  the 
sanitation,  is  simpler  on  board  a  vessel  than  in  a  town  of 
half  the  size  ashore.  No  refuse  destructors  or  sewage 
destroying  facilities  are  demanded  here.  The  open  ocean 
is  the  general  dumping-ground,  without  affording  incon- 
venience to  any  one.  The  only  difficulty,  if  such  it  can 
be  called,  is  in  reference  to  the  ash  and  clinker  arising 
from  the  consumption  of  from  500  to  1000  tons  of  coal 
per  twenty-four  hours,  which  is  certain  to  be  enormous. 
In  the  olden  days  this  waste  had  to  be  hauled  on  the  main 
deck  in  sacks,  or  other  suitable  receptacles,  and  shot  over- 
board, generally  to  the  discomfiture  of  the  passengers  and 
the  littering  of  the  decks.  Here,  again,  the  engineer  has 
come  to  the  passengers'  assistance  with  his  perfect 
ingenuity.  The  refuse  from  the  furnaces  falls  into  a 
hopper,  where  it  mixes  with  a  jet  of  water,  and  the  whole 
is  then  driven  upwards  through  a  conduit  by  compressed 
air,  to  be  discharged  into  the  sea  about  twenty  feet  away 
from  the  vessel's  side,  so  that  the  travellers  aboard  do  not 
suffer  the  slightest  inconvenience.  Owing  to  the  friendly 
services  of  the  water-jet,  the  possibility  of  clouds  of  dust 
being  whirled  aboard  is  rendered  impossible. 

The  ship  has  also  a  deck  flushing  system  which  a  modern 
town  might  envy.     Hoses  are  connected  up  to  the  standing 


ii8     STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

hydrants,  and  the  pumps  below  in  the  engine-room  send  a 
powerful  jet  of  water  from  the  nozzle,  cleansing  the  decks 
thoroughly,  while  the  services  of  a  squeegee  at  once  rids 
the  promenade  of  all  the  surplus  water. 

Truly  the  imaginative  writer,  seeking  for  picturesque 
descriptions,  who  has  likened  the  modern  liner  to  a  floating 
town,  has  come  nearer  to  the  truth  than  he  ever  dreamed. 


CHAPTER    IX 

MAMMOTH    FRESH-WATER    LINERS    AND    FREIGHTERS 

At  intervals  the  columns  of  the  daily  newspapers  are 
illuminated  by  graphic  descriptions  of  apparently  smart 
performances  in  the  handling  and  loading  or  unloading  of 
large  liners,  driven  to  record-breaking  round  trips  between 
Liverpool  and  New  York.  The  descriptive  writer  paints 
stirring  pictures  of  elaborate  arrangements  made  to  achieve 
this  end,  and  the  reader  lays  down  his  paper  to  marvel. 

Yet  there  is  little  occasion  for  such  amazement.  What 
is  done  once  in  a  while  with  a  liner  in  a  big  salt-water  port 
is  accomplished  every  hour  of  the  day  at  the  leading  centres 
scattered  around  the  shores  of  the  Great  Lakes  of  America, 
where  even  the  smartest  of  smart  performances — records, 
if  you  like — do  not  attract  more  than  four  lines  of  atten- 
tion in  the  local  Press,  and  even  then  the  items  are  tucked 
away  in  an  obscure  corner  as  if  to  fill  up  space  !  The 
truth  is  that  the  Press  and  the  people  in  the  countries  abut- 
ting these  inland  seas  have  become  so  accustomed  to  quick 
handling  that  they  regard  it  with  indifference.  The 
abnormal  and  wonder-provoking  feats  among  the  maritime 
ports  are  the  commonplace  about  these  inland  seas. 

It  is  difficult  to  convey  an  adequate  impression  of  the 
tremendous  water-borne  traffic  of  the  Great  Lakes.  Figures 
are  abortive — they  are  so  huge  as  to  be  meaningless- — one 
cannot  grasp  their  significance.  It  is  equally  difficult  to 
draw  comparisons,  for  the  simple  reason  that  similar 
conditions  are  not  to  be  found  in  any  other  part  of  the 
world.  Every  one  has  heard  of  the  Suez  Canal,  and  knows 
that  a  very  heavy  volume  of  traffic  flowing  between  Europe 
and  the  East,  as  well  as  Australia,  is  diverted  through  this 
short  cut.    Bearing  in  mind  the  size  of  tiie  liners  and  their 

119 


I20     STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST   OF  THE   WORLD 

great  carrying  capacity,  the  average  person  might  be  par- 
doned for  concluding  that  the  largest  individual  aggregate 
of  freight  makes  its  way  through  de  Lesseps'  great  master- 
piece of  construction,  and  that  this  canal  is  the  busiest 
place  in  the  world.  This  assumption  is  strengthened  by 
the  knowledge  that  widening  and  deepening  operations  are 
in  constant  progress,  to  meet  the  exigencies  of  increasing 
traffic. 

But  is  the  Suez  Canal  the  busiest  waterway  in  the  world  ? 
If  figures  offer  any  criterion,  it  is  hopelessly  outclassed  by 
the  few  miles  of  waterway  forming  an  artificial  channel, 
or  rather  reclaimed  river,  known  as  the  Sault  Ste. -Marie 
— Soo-See-Maree — which  connects  Lakes  Superior  and 
Huron.  Seven  times  as  much  freight  passes  through  this 
waterway  between  American  and  Canadian  ports  as  the 
whole  world  sends  through  the  Suez  Canal  in  the  course  of 
the  twelve  months.  When  it  is  remembered  that  traffic  on 
the  lakes  is  confined  to  a  short  season  of  twenty-six  weeks  in 
the  summer,  the  teeming  trade  upon  this  slender  neck  of 
water  may  be  appreciated.  If  it  were  open  the  whole  year 
round  the  volume  of  traffic  would  be  twice  as  great,  because 
it  is  there  to  be  handled ;  it  is  only  the  ice  which  interrupts 
the  continuity  of  the  traffic  stream,  and  man  has  not  yet 
succeeded  in  devising  ways  and  means  of  keeping  the 
navigable  channels  across  the  lakes  open  during  the  winter. 
When  this  end  is  achieved  the  boats,  instead  of  lying-up 
in  long  rows  in  the  various  docks,  at  once  will  accept  the 
facilities  offered  to  keep  running. 

Before  one  is  able  to  grasp  the  extent  of  this  unique 
ocean  traffic  it  is  necessary  to  grasp  some  idea  of  the 
dimensions  of  these  great  seas  of  fresh  water.  Their 
indications  on  the  atlases  convey  nothing.  Lake  Superior 
is  the  largest  sheet  of  fresh  water  in  the  world.  It  covers 
an  area  of  31,200  square  miles,  almost  large  enough  to  con- 
tain the  whole  of  Ireland.  From  end  to  end  it  measures 
412  miles,  and  it  is  167  miles  across  at  its  broadest  part. 
It  shelves  away  from  the  Canadian  and  American  shores 
on  either  hand,  until  at  its  deepest  part  the  sounding  lead 


MAMMOTH    FRESH-WATER    LINERS       121 

mustsink  1,008  feet  before  it  touches  the  bottom.  LakeHuron 
comes  next  in  size,  with  a  superficies  of  23,800  square  miles, 
while  its  extreme  length  is  263  miles,  and  its  breadth,  ignor- 
ing Georgian  Bay,  is  105  miles.  Lake  Michigan,  which  is 
a  somewhat  more  elongated,  oval-shaped  lake,  is  335  miles 
from  end  to  end,  with  a  width  varying  from  50  to  88  miles, 
and  covering  22,450  square  miles.  Lake  Erie,  which  is  in 
the  chain  of  connected  seas,  is  much  smaller,  covering  only 
9,960  square  miles,  with  a  length  of  240  miles  by  some 
60  miles  from  shore  to  shore.  These  are  the  principal  lakes 
associated  with  navigation,  Lake  Ontario  being  somewhat 
isolated  from  the  great  volume  of  traffic,  owing  to  the 
Niagara  Falls  preventing  through  communication  between 
the  lakes.  This  breach,  however,  is  circumvented  by  a 
useful  Canal,  through  which  pass  the  steamers  sailing 
from  Europe,  to  penetrate  to  the  head  of  Lake  Superior  or 
to  call  at  Chicago.  Upon  these  connected  great  sheets  of 
water  it  is  possible  to  participate  in  a  round  voyage  of  over 
2000  miles,  so  that  it  is  not  surprising  to  hear  such  a  tour 
described  as  the  "longest  and  finest  fresh  water  sea  voyage 
in  the  world  !  " 

Scattered  around  the  shores  of  these  four  lakes  are  a 
number  of  busy  ports,  the  collecting  and  clearing  houses 
for  a  vast  assortment  of  products  gathered  from  the  con- 
tiguous western  country— the  great  ore  lands  of  Minnesota 
and  the  extensive  grain-growing  provinces  of  Western 
Canada  and  the  Middle  United  States.  The  volume  of 
products  handled  on  the  shores  of  these  waterways  alone 
is  tremendous,  reaching  staggering  figures  scarcely  to  be 
realised.  At  Port  Arthur  the  Canadian  Northern  Railway 
has  an  elevator  which  stores  7,000,000  bushels  of  grain ;  at 
Fort  William,  four  miles  to  the  west,  the  Grand  Trunk 
Pacific  Railway  has  completed  the  first  part — containing 
8,000,000  bushels — of  a  stupendous  elevator  which,  when 
completed,  will  hold  no  less  than  20,000,000  bushels  of 
grain.  At  Duluth  the  ore  docks  stretch  for  miles,  one 
battery  of  bins  being  able  to  hold  over  600,000  tons,  while 
the  grain  elevators  between  them  can  store  no  less  than 


122     STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST  OF  THE   WORLD 

40,000,000  bushels.  Superior  has  twelve  grain  elevators 
which  can  cope  with  17,500,000  bushels,  while  the  coal 
docks  have  a  capacity  of  3,000,000  tons. 

In  view  of  such  figures  as  these,  is  it  surprising  that  the 
traffic  over  the  Great  Lakes  renders  them  easily  the  busiest 
scene  of  marine  activity  in  the  world?  Is  it  surprising 
that  special  vessels  of  tremendous  size  have  been  built 
merely  for  handling  these  products,  and  that  millions 
sterling  have  been  expended  in  the  equipment  of  the  ports 
with  the  very  latest  labour  and  time  saving  devices,  to 
expedite  the  respective  tasks  of  loading  and  discharging? 
At  Escanaba  thirty  vessels  may  draw  up  in  lines  alongside 
the  quays  and  be  loaded  with  ore  simultaneously.  Over 
400,000  feet  of  timber  were  consumed  to  build  the  docks 
projecting  a  quarter  of  a  mile  into  the  lake  at  Marquette, 
representing  an  outlay  of  $4,000,000,  or  ^800,000.  The 
handling  devices  are  among  the  most  wonderful  to  be  seen 
in  any  place  on  the  globe.  At  the  granaries  the  grain  is 
weighed  in  huge  hoppers,  as  big  as  a  suburban  drawing- 
room,  and  shot  pell-mell  in  a  continuous  stream  into  the 
holds  of  the  steamers.  The  ore  is  loaded  in  much  the  same 
manner,  only  in  this  instance  the  boat  is  provided  with 
perhaps  a  score  of  hatchways.  The  vessel  is  so  moored 
alongside  that  a  hatchway  comes  opposite  the  discharge 
chute  of  an  ore-bin,  the  latter  is  lowered,  and  with  a  deafen- 
ing din  twenty  or  more  red  streams  pour  incessantly  into 
the  boat,  until  either  the  bins  are  emptied  or  the  boat  has 
received  its  full  load.  The  former  contingency  is  scarcely 
possible,  as  upon  the  land  side  trains  are  continually  draw- 
ing up  to  discharge  trucks  laden  to  bursting-point  with 
ore,  so  that  the  hoppers  are  charged  as  rapidly  as  they  are 
emptied. 

The  lake  freighter  is  a  race  of  ships  apart.  You  will 
not  meet  its  like  the  whole  world  over.  It  is  a  mere  shell 
of  steel  from  400  to  600  feet  in  length.  Right  forward, 
raised  above  the  bow  and  recalling  a  battlemented  castle, 
is  the  navigating  bridge.  At  the  opposite  extremity,  and 
apparently  crowded  into  the  stern  space,  are  the  engines 


AN    ORK    FREIcniTKR    IX    THE    "  SOO  "    LOCKS 

These  blufT-ended  boats  are  able  to  carry  from  lo.ooo  to  15.003  tons  of  ore. 
The  Xavisratinc;  Krid^je  is  in  the  bow. 


mm 


g  :.MMM»Mm 


M- 


MAMMOTH    FRESH-WATER    LINERS       123 

and  boilers.  It  looks  as  if  the  builder  somewhat  regretted 
having  to  waste  valuable  carrying  space  upon  a  navigating 
bridge  and  engine-room.  At  all  events  he  crowds  them 
into  the  minimum  of  space  at  either  end,  so  that  in  reality 
the  vessel  recalls  a  cyclopean  barge.  Indeed,  it  might  be 
termed  a  steam-driven  craft  of  this  class.  The  whole  of  the 
space  between  the  bridge  and  the  engine-room  is  one 
capacious  hold,  like  a  long  skating  rink,  in  which  the  ore, 
grain  or  coal  is  dumped. 

The  boats  are  as  impressive  from  their  size  as  their 
unusual  design.  When  the  lake  traffic  was  in  its  infancy, 
mere  barges,  such  as  we  see  upon  our  rivers,  were  satis- 
factory and  quite  able  to  meet  all  demands.  Then  the 
United  States,  realising  the  significance  of  the  future  of 
steel,  and  being  possessed  of  illimitable  deposits  of  ore  and 
coal,  developed  this  industry,  so  that  the  traffic  grew,  and 
small  ore-carriers  driven  by  steam  were  introduced  as  an 
experiment.  They  only  carried  a  few  thousand  tons  apiece, 
being  somewhat  similar  in  design  and  carrying  capacity  to 
the  familiar  small  coasting  tramps  common  to  British 
waters.  As  the  steel  industry  thrived  and  became  organ- 
ised upon  a  more  comprehensive  basis,  the  dimensions  of 
these  craft  became  augmented  automatically  and  propor- 
tionately. This  movement  culminated  in  1905  with  the 
formation  of  the  United  States  Steel  Trust,  which  acquired 
the  extensive  ore  fields  of  Minnesota,  to  keep  its  numerous 
huge  works  well  supplied  with  raw  material.  In  this  year 
appeared  four  vessels  which  in  carrying  capacity  were 
equivalent  to  the  whole  fleet  engaged  in  this  service  in  1870, 
each  boat  being  able  to  carry  15,000  tons.  These  enor- 
mous vessels  are  rather  abnormal.  The  10,000-tonner  is  the 
most  popular  type,  as  it  can  be  taken  into  practically  any 
port  along  the  shores  of  the  lakes.  The  15,000-ton  freighter 
became  necessary,  however,  for  the  reason  that  when  the 
United  States  Steel  Corporation  took  over  the  Superior  ore 
fields,  it  undertook  to  increase  the  annual  volume  of  ore 
mined  from  1,500,000  tons  in  1907  to  8,250,000  tons  in  191 7. 
Consequently,  in  order  to  meet  this  increase  year  by  year 


124    STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST  OF  THE   WORLD 

until  the  maximum  was  attained,  larger  boats  had  to  be 
built,  in  order  that  the  cost  of  transportation  might  be 
reduced  to  its  very  lowest  level.  It  was  calculated  that  by 
1 91 7  a  fleet  of  vessels  would  be  necessary  on  the  Great 
Lakes  capable  of  handling  50,000,000  tons  of  ore  during 
the  six  months'  season.  At  the  present  time  it  is  estimated 
that  the  aggregate  of  freight  traffic  borne  over  these  waters 
is  no  fewer  than  80,000,000  tons  per  annum,  and  the 
100,000,000  tons  mark  is  within  sight,  from  the  immediate 
developments  which  are  maturing. 

One  is  able  to  obtain  a  tangible  idea  of  the  enormous 
dimensions  of  this  freight  traffic  by  making  a  voyage 
across  the  Great  Lakes,  say  from  Detroit  to  Duluth  or 
Fort  William.  The  laden  boats  from  the  north  pass  in  an 
endless  stream,  following  one  another  so  closely  that  some- 
times they  are  scarcely  half-a-mile  apart.  About  half-a- 
mile  distant  is  the  up-going  stream  of  empty  craft,  similarly 
spaced  apart,  returning  north  for  fresh  supplies.  It  is  a 
tremendous  endless  conveyor  laid  on  its  sides,  the  vessels 
representing  the  buckets.  The  loading-point  is  at  any  of 
the  ports  at  the  heads  of  the  upper  lakes,  while  the  dis- 
charging end,  where  the  buckets  round  the  ladder,  as  it 
were,  is  at  the  ports  around  the  edges  of  the  lower  lake. 
At  night,  when  the  weather  is  clear,  the  paths  across  these 
seas  recall  a  brilliantly  lighted  thoroughfare,  with  the  lamps 
of  the  freighters  gleaming  brightly.  This  is  the  "Great 
White  Waterway "  of  the  lakes,  through  which  the 
passenger  boat  is  able  to  proceed  with  the  ease  of  an 
automobile  speeding  along  a  city  avenue. 

The  whole  traffic  appears  to  run  with  the  precision  of 
a  clock.  There  is  no  fuss  or  flurry.  The  ships,  upon 
reaching  their  destination,  are  moored  alongside  the  dock 
in  the  course  of  a  few  seconds,  and  in  a  manner  that  would 
make  the  master  of  an  Atlantic  liner  gasp.  Ere  the  screws 
have  ceased  their  revolutions  and  the  hum  of  the  engine 
has  died  down,  monster  and  wonderful  transporting  devices 
have  awoke  from  their  sleep,  the  hatchways  have  been 
thrown  open  in  the  twinkling  of  an  eye,  and  the  ore  is 


MAMMOTH    FRESH-WATER    LINERS       125 

being  discharged.  This  is,  perhaps,  where  the  finest 
expression  of  mechanical  handUng  is  displayed.  It  is  a 
comparatively  easy  matter  to  load  the  ship,  as  the  ore  flows 
into  the  holds  by  gravity ;  but  unloading  is  a  different 
problem,  since  the  material  has  to  be  lifted.  The  unloaders 
are  a  bewildering  array  of  overhead  steel  towers  and  plat- 
forms, along  which  the  carrying  devices  are  whisked  at 
high  speed,  dipped  into  the  holds,  lifted,  and  run  back- 
wards, to  be  emptied  on  the  unsightly  mountains  of  ore 
behind.  It  costs  some  $300,  or  ;^6o,  per  day  in  wages, 
insurance,  fuel  and  other  items  to  run  one  of  these 
freighters.  Consequently  it  is  imperative  that  the  period 
of  enforced  idleness  alongside  the  loading  and  discharging 
wharves  should  be  reduced  to  the  minimum,  especially 
when  it  is  remembered  that  the  ore  is  carried  at  a  very  low 
rate — between  60  and  70  cents,  or  from  2S.  6d.  to  35.,  per 
ton.  Yet  so  perfect  and  expeditious  are  the  unloading 
methods  that  the  most  up-to-date  ore-carrier,  fitted  with  the 
very  latest  devices,  can  be  relieved  of  its  10,000  tons  of  ore 
in  about  four  hours,  and  at  a  cost  of  $70,  or  ^14,  equal  to 
about  one-third  of  a  penny  per  ton.  This  sum  may  be 
reduced  even  lower,  the  cost  in  some  cases  being  barely  a 
farthing,  or  half  a  cent,  per  ton. 

Some  of  the  performances  achieved  by  these  monster 
freighters  are  extraordinary,  both  in  carrying  and  discharg- 
ing. One  freighter  came  down  with  14,000  tons  of  ore, 
another  brought  down  421,000  bushels,  or  12,661  tons,  of 
grain  in  single  loads.  It  is  by  no  means  uncommon  for 
an  empty  freighter  to  enter  one  of  the  northern  ports,  take 
on  10,000  tons  of  ore,  and  be  off  again  in  less  than  a  couple 
of  hours,  the  loading  operation  itself  being  achieved  in 
about  eighty  minutes  from  the  moment  the  hatchways  are 
opened  and  the  ponderous  shoots  lowered.  In  discharging, 
the  same  celerity  is  manifest ;  the  same  steamer  will  rid 
itself  of  its  load  in  about  four  hours,  to  steam  away  merrily 
for  another  cargo.  On  the  Great  Lakes  losses  from  delay 
have  been  reduced  to  the  minimum,  expedition  being  the 
sole  object.     There  is  a  friendly  rivalry  among  the  various 


126    STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST  OF   THE   WORLD 

freighters  and  their  crews  in  the  endeavour  to  set  up 
records,  and  this  spirit  being  fostered,  has  led  to  many 
marvellous  achievements. 

Possibly  the  two  spots  where  the  most  intimate  impres- 
sions of  this  peculiar  freight  trade  may  be  gained  are  at 
the  huge  docks  at  Sault  Ste.-Marie  and  on  the  Detroit 
River.  The  "Soo  locks,"  as  they  are  called  colloquially, 
are  among  the  most  famous,  and  certainly  are  the  busiest, 
in  the  world.  When  the  traffic  upon  these  lakes  com- 
menced, the  difference  of  eighteen  feet  between  the  level 
of  Lakes  Superior  and  Huron  was  considered  an  insur- 
mountable obstacle.  The  water  pours  out  of  the  former 
into  the  latter  lake  in  a  mad  downhill  race  known  as  the 
"Soo  Rapids,"  which  are  half-a-mile  in  length.  Before 
the  white  man  came,  the  Iroquois,  Huron  and  other  Red 
Indians  shot  the  water  declivity  in  their  delicately  balanced 
dug-outs  with  no  more  fear  than  the  average  oarsman  pulls 
along  the  upper  reaches  of  the  Thames,  while  on  the 
upward  run  they  hugged  the  banks,  taking  advantage  of 
the  eddies  and  overhanging  branches  to  crawl  gingerly 
upwards,  or  else  made  the  portage. 

When  the  freighters  arrived  such  methods  were  imprac- 
ticable, while  the  transference  of  cargo  from  one  ship  to 
another  at  this  point  was  just  as  impossible.  So  the 
engineers  built  the  locks.  As  the  levy  of  tolls  would  have 
placed  an  undue  handicap  upon  the  shipping  industry  of 
these  fresh-water  seas,  the  American  and  Canadian  Govern- 
ments, combined,  made  the  locks  international,  and  now 
permit  vessels  to  pass  without  any  charge  whatever,  the 
cost  of  operation  being  shared  by  the  respective  countries. 
The  "Soo  "  is  the  focus  of  the  whole  trade  upon  the  Great 
Lakes,  and  it  is  by  no  means  unusual  for  120  vessels  to  be 
passed  through  these  locks  in  the  course  of  a  single  day. 
As  the  vessels  come  up  from  the  south  or  down  from  the 
north  they  line  up  in  a  long  queue  on  either  side  of  the 
fairways  leading  to  the  huge  waterlift.  The  ponderous 
dock  gates  are  swung  open  and  the  vessels  enter,  as  many 
being  admitted  as  the  lock  will  hold.     The  various  craft 


MAMMOTH    FRESH-WATER    LINERS       127 

almost  touch  one  another,  being  packed  as  dexterously 
as  sardines  in  a  tin,  so  that  no  valuable  water  space  within 
may  be  lost.  In  this  manner  three  or  four  boats  will  be 
handled  at  one  time.  Directly  the  lock  is  filled  the  lower 
gate  is  closed,  and,  the  water  being  admitted  in  huge 
streams  through  underground  pipes,  the  ships  are  lifted 
bodily  for  a  height  of  about  twenty  feet.  Now  the  spec- 
tators on  the  lock  wall  are  peering  down  on  the  deck  of 
the  freighter  within  the  box  space;  three  minutes  later  the 
hull,  a  cliff  of  steel,  is  towering  above  them.  As  the  upper 
gates  are  opened  the  lifted  vessels  pass  out,  and  the  fore- 
most in  the  waiting  string  crawl  in,  to  be  lowered  into  the 
St.  Mary  River.  During  the  season  the  scene  is  one  of 
extraordinary  activity  both  day  and  night,  as  the  operation 
continues  incessantly,  the  scene  after  dark  being  brilliantly 
illuminated  by  flaming  electric  lights. 

Over  50,000,000  tons  are  now  passed  through  these  locks 
in  the  course  of  a  season.  In  1884  the  total  was  less  than 
3,000,000  tons.  These  figures  speak  for  themselves;  but 
show  the  amazing  development  that  has  taken  place  in 
the  freight  trade  of  the  Great  Lakes.  The  Detroit  River 
traffic  is  somewhat  heavier,  as  it  is  swelled  by  that  coming 
from  and  going  to  ports  on  Lake  Michigan  which  need 
not  pass  through  the  Soo  Locks.  The  result  is  that 
over  70,000,000  tons  of  freight  go  through  this  narrow 
waterway,  representing  a  value  exceeding  $700,000,000,  or 
^140,000,000,  in  the  course  of  six  months. 

The  construction  of  these  freighters  has  become  a  pros- 
perous trade  in  itself,  and  the  shores  of  the  lakes  are  dotted 
with  bustling  shipyards,  where  rivalry  is  keen,  and  where 
the  building  facilities  are  of  the  very  latest  description. 
One  can  order  a  boat  measuring  500  feet  in  length  by  50 
feet  beam  and  30  feet  deep,  and  within  90  days  after  the 
keel  blocks  are  laid  the  10,000-tonner  will  be  afloat,  com- 
plete and  ready  for  service.  In  an  eff'ort  to  determine  just 
how  quickly  one  of  these  craft  could  be  built,  there  was  a 
race  against  time,  and  the  boat  was  built  and  placed  in 
commission  in  a  little  over  40  days. 


128    STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST  OF  THE   WORLD 

The  freight  traffic,  however,  is  only  one  branch  of  the 
maritime  commerce  upon  these  seas.  The  passenger  trade 
is  one  of  great  dimensions,  and  the  boats  engaged  in  this 
service,  like  the  ore-carriers,  are  remarkable.  They  are 
essentially  constructed  for  the  most  part  for  pleasure  pur- 
poses, freight  is  not  carried,  and  in  appearance  they  differ 
materially  from  similar  boats  in  British  waters.  The  vessel 
looks  ungainly  and  top-heavy,  with  its  three  tiers  of  open 
decks  extending  from  stem  to  stern,  with  the  wheel-house 
and  navigating  bridge  perched  high  above  the  water. 
Their  finely  pointed  lines  are  indicative  of  speed,  and  to 
a  certain  degree  appear  dangerous,  but  accidents  among 
these  craft  are  very  few  and  far  between.  Around  the 
shores  of  the  lakes  are  many  attractive  and  picturesque 
beauty  spots  and  resorts,  so  that  it  is  no  unusual  sight  to 
see  one  of  these  craft,  with  all  its  decks  packed  tightly  with 
some  3000  gaily  dressed  passengers,  threading  its  way 
through  the  streams  of  freighters.  These  are  the  excursion 
boats,  and  the  trips  are  run  at  very  cheap  rates  indeed. 
Here  and  there,  however,  may  be  seen  more  imposing 
vessels  which  do  not  differ  in  any  respect  in  their  general 
appearances  from  the  majestic  liners  which  draw  alongside 
the  landing-stages  of  Southampton,  Liverpool,  Bremen,  or 
any  other  great  ports  of  the  world. 

The  liners  of  the  lakes  vie  in  accommodation  and  speed 
with  any  to  be  found  upon  the  Atlantic  or  Pacific  Oceans, 
though  obviously  their  general  design  and  internal  ap- 
pointments vary,  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  peculiar 
trafBc.  Every  artifice  of  the  shipbuilders'  skill  which  enters 
into  the  fashioning  of  the  stately  salt-water  liner  is  found 
reproduced,  with  essential  modifications.  Take  the 
Hamonic,  of  the  Northern  Navigation  and  Grand  Trunk 
Railway  CompanieSj  which  is  one  of  the  finest  and  swiftest 
of  her  class.  From  end  to  end  she  measures  365  feet,  with 
a  beam  of  50  feet,  moulded  depth  of  27  feet,  of  5000  tons, 
and  with  a  speed  of  21 J  miles  per  hour.  She  has  accom- 
modation for  400  first  and  75  second  class,  together  with 
a  crew  of  no.     The  hull  is  divided  into  water-tight  com- 


THE    OBSKKVATION-ROOM    OF    THE    HAMONIC 


THE    DININC;    SALOON    Ol"    THE    IIAMOMC 

STEAMSHIP    TRAVEL    e:»X    THE    CiREAT    LAKES    OF 
NORTH    AMERICA 


MAMMOTH    FRESH-WATER    LINERS       129 

partments,  she  is  fitted  with  bilge  keels  to  minimise  rolling, 
and  makes  a  regular  run  from  Sarnia  in  the  St.  Clair 
River  to  Port  Arthur  at  the  head  of  Lake  Superior,  calling 
at  Fort  William  and  Duluth,  the  round  trip  approximating 
1,500  miles.  The  vessel  has  five  decks,  seven  laps  around 
the  longest  constituting  a  mile,  is  lighted  throughout  by- 
electricity,  has  a  complete  refrigerating  plant,  and  also  a 
wireless  telegraph  installation. 

Internally  the  vessel  is  fitted  up  in  the  most  luxurious 
manner,  with  a  long  dining  saloon  the  full  width  of  the 
ship,  a  drawing-room  amidships  which  resembles  a  lofty 
domed  hall,  and  a  smoking  lounge  and  library  at  the 
stern.  She  is  a  floating  palace  in  the  fullest  sense  of  the 
word,  and  in  the  summer  season  the  demand  for  berths  is 
so  heavy  that  they  must  be  booked  several  days  in  advance. 
A  cruise  around  these  Great  Lakes  has  developed  into  as 
popular  a  holiday  among  the  Americans  and  Canadians 
as  a  trip  to  the  fjords  of  Norway  or  the  Mediterranean  is 
among  Europeans,  while  many  trans-continental  travellers 
welcome  two  days  on  these  waters  as  a  pleasant  interlude 
to  the  4000  miles  of  railway  ride  from  the  Atlantic  to  the 
Pacific  seaboard. 

Some  of  these  vessels,  however,  are  closely  similar  in 
their  design  and  appointments  to  those  found  in  British 
waters.  Many  have  been  built  upon  the  Clyde  or  Tyne, 
have  steamed  across  the  Atlantic,  and  then  have  been 
floated  through  the  small  locks  of  the  canal  in  sections, 
in  order  to  get  round  Niagara  into  Lake  Erie,  as  described 
in  another  chapter.  The  British  boats  are  extremely 
popular,  the  closer  alliance  with  the  ocean  greyhound  in 
design  and  equipment  appealing  to  local  tastes.  Many  of 
the  Canadian  Pacific  Lake  liners  have  been  built  and  sent 
to  the  inland  seas  in  this  manner,  and  these  are  among 
the  fleetest  and  best  patronised  craft  on  the  lakes. 

Now  and  again  the  monotony  of  the  regular  round  is 
relieved  by  an  exciting  incident  or  thrilling  adventure. 
One  amazing  accident,  fortunately  unattended  with  loss  of 
life,  occurred  while  one  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  steamers 

K 


130    STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST  OF   THE   WORLD 

was  proceeding  through  the  Soo  Locks.  The  vessel  was 
coming  south,  and,  through  some  miscalculation  or  error, 
a  large  freighter  which  was  to  be  lowered  simultaneously 
smashed  into  the  lower  gate,  carrying  it  away.  Imme- 
diately the  water,  boxed  up  to  a  height  of  twenty  feet, 
rushed  out  with  tremendous  force.  The  liner  was  helpless. 
She  was  picked  up  like  a  cork,  to  be  flung  out  broadside 
into  the  St.  Mary  River,  crashing  into  one  or  two  vessels 
waiting  below  to  be  lifted  into  Lake  Superior,  and  in  turn 
sending  them  adrift.  It  was  a  terrible  melee,  and  those  on 
board  the  liner  thought  their  end  had  come.  Yet,  although 
the  vessel  was  the  sport  of  the  seething  water,  the  captain 
stuck  to  the  wheel,  trusting  to  luck,  and  desperately 
endeavoured  to  regain  control  of  his  ship.  When  she 
got  into  the  centre  of  the  river  she  almost  heeled  over 
broadside,  but  changed  her  mind  under  the  manipulation 
of  the  engines  and  the  rudder,  came  round  in  a  broad 
circle,  floating  on  a  level  keel,  and  as  unhurt  as  if  nothing 
had  happened.  It  was  a  miraculous  escape,  and  a  terrible 
disaster  was  only  avoided  by  the  cool-headedness  and  smart 
seamanship  of  the  captain. 

Although  these  large  sheets  of  water  are  completely 
land-locked,  it  must  not  be  thought  that  a  journey  is  always 
akin  to  a  trip  across  Windermere  or  Loch  Lomond.  At 
times  the  scenes  of  torment,  when  wind  and  wave  are  in 
deadly  battle,  are  as  wild  as  those  encountered  in  mid- 
ocean.  These  lakes  have  achieved  an  evil  notoriety  for 
the  character  and  severity  of  their  storms.  Many  a  vessel 
has  put  into  port  as  badly  battered  and  bruised  as  if  it 
had  been  engulfed  in  a  hurricane  in  the  Pacific,  while 
wrecks  are  of  frequent  occurrence.  In  fact,  the  vagaries 
of  the  weather  at  times  are  extraordinary.  On  one  occasion 
when  I  made  the  lake  journey  from  Sarnia  to  Port  Arthur 
the  four  seasons  were  experienced  in  twice  as  many  hours. 
The  negotiation  of  the  Soo  Locks  at  midday  found  the 
vessel  and  all  the  passengers  sweltering  in  a  heat-wave,  with 
the  temperature  hovering  around  loo  degrees  in  the  shade. 
The    meteorological    conditions   were   somewhat    unusual, 


MAMMOTH    FRESH-WATER    LINERS       131 

although  the  longest  day  was  barely  a  week  distant.  At 
five  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  the  vessel,  evidently  having 
passed  beyond  the  limits  of  the  heat  belt,  encountered  a 
driving  rain,  reminiscent  of  spring,  which  an  hour  later 
gave  way  to  a  raw  fog  such  as  one  expects  in  the  autumn. 
The  thermometer  descended  so  low  that  top-coats  became 
necessary,  and  by  eight  o'clock  all  the  steam  radiators  were 
going,  in  the  effort  to  impart  some  warmth  throughout  the 
public  and  private  rooms  of  the  vessel. 

As  the  winter  closes  down  upon  the  lake  the  freighters 
and  floating  palaces  make  for  their  home  ports,  to  hibernate 
for  six  months  in  the  docks.  As  they  arrive  they  are 
berthed  in  long  rows,  stretching  for  miles  after  mile,  safe 
from  the  fury  of  winter.  The  crews  scatter  to  find  other 
employment,  and  the  great  seas  present  a  desolate  and 
deserted  appearance,  to  be  encased  by  the  end  of  November 
in  a  thick  armour  of  snow-covered  ice.  With  the  first 
warnings  of  spring  the  crews  return  to  the  docks,  and  soon 
are  engaged  busily  overhauling  the  engines,  polishing  the 
fittings,  and  making  doubly  sure  that  the  vessel  will  be 
right  and  sound  in  every  detail  for  the  frantic  rush  that 
sets  in  directly  the  waterways  are  released  from  the  grip  of 
the  ice. 

The  United  States  have  struggled  hard  to  restore  their 
bygone  mercantile  supremacy  upon  the  Atlantic,  but  their 
efforts  have  proved  futile.  Other  competitors  have  entered 
the  lists,  competent  to  cater  for  the  travelling  public  in  a 
better,  cheaper  and  more  satisfactory  manner  than  the 
American-built  craft.  It  is  somewhat  strange  that  a  system 
of  subsidising  ocean-going  vessels  is  advocated  as  the  only 
means  whereby  a  footing  may  be  obtained  upon  the 
Atlantic  and  Pacific.  The  opponents  of  such  a  bounty 
system  point  to  the  astonishingly  flourishing  condition 
and  prosperity  of  the  United  States'  shipping  upon  the 
Great  Lakes,  where  not  a  coin  is  expended  in  subsidies. 
About  two-thirds  of  the  total  annual  shipbuilding  output 
of  the  whole  of  the  United  States,  and  nearly  eighty  per 
cent,  of  the  total  lakes'  tonnage,  is  built  on  the  shores  of 

K   2 


132     STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST  OF  THE   WORLD 

and  for  service  upon  these  inland  seas.  In  the  face  of 
these  circumstances  the  antagonists  to  subsidy  methods 
may  be  pardoned  for  asking  why,  if  the  United  States  can 
hold  its  own  upon  the  fresh-water  seas,  should  it  fail  to 
make  headway  on  the  salt  seas  ? 


CHAPTER    X 

"the   blue   ribbon    of   the   ATLANTIC" 

Competition  is  the  life-stream  of  commerce.  Thus  it 
was  inevitable,  when  the  two  first,  but  differently  owned, 
steamships  emerged  from  British  yards,  that  the  anomalous 
principle— fi'iendly  rivalry — should  become  manifest  imme- 
diately. The  navigator,  provided  with  a  propelling  effort 
which  relieved  him  from  the  caprices  of  the  winds,  could 
not  resist  falling  a  victim  to  the  intoxication  of  speed,  and 
the  possibilities  of  a  spirited  race  stirred  the  inhabitants  of 
both  the  Old  and  New  Worlds  very  deeply. 

The  first  round  between  rival  liners,  if  such  they  might 
be  called,  was  fought  in  1838.  Brunei,  seeking  new  vic- 
tories for  his  craft,  resolved  upon  the  steamship  conquest 
of  the  Atlantic.  The  Royal  William,  in  its  passage  from 
Quebec  to  London  in  1833,  demonstrated  the  possibilities 
of  the  steamship  in  a  most  emphatic  manner,  and,  accord- 
ingly, this  engineering  genius  decided  to  establish  a  regular 
steamship  service  between  Bristol  and  New  York.  About 
this  time  another  enterprising  spirit  had  conceived  the 
formation  of  a  rival  organisation,  which  was  registered 
as  "The  British  Queen  Navigation  Company,"  after  the 
name  of  the  first  vessel  constructed  for  it.  Brunei,  not 
to  be  outdone,  retorted  with  the  Great  Western,  a  paddle- 
wheel  vessel  236  feet  long,  with  a  beam  of  35J  feet,  and  of 
1,300  tons.  The  British  Queen  claimed  to  have  given  the 
idea  to  Brunei  by  the  publication  of  its  prospectus,  and 
was  in  danger  of  being  robbed  of  its  honour  of  having 
established  the  first  steamship  service  across  the  Atlantic, 
as  the  firm  entrusted  with  the  construction  of  the  British 
Queen  upon  the  Thames  was  overwhelmed  by  financial 
disaster.     It  appeared  as  if  Brunei's  Great  Western  were 

133 


134    STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST  OF   THE   WORLD 

certain  to  get  away  first,  but  fortunately  the  promoters  of 
the  original  enterprise  learned  that  another  steamship,  the 
Sirius,  was  approaching  completion,  and  forthwith  she  was 
chartered  for  the  occasion,  in  order  that  the  British  Queen 
Navigation  Company  might  not  be  deprived  of  its  glory. 
The  Sirius,  built  at  Perth  and  engined  on  the  Clyde,  was 
178  feet  in  length,  with  a  beam  of  25  feet,  a  depth  of  18  feet, 
had  a  gross  register  of  703  tons,  and  was  fitted  with  engines 
which  developed  320  horse-power,  capable  of  developing 
7^  knots  per  hour. 

As  both  these  vessels  were  ready  for  the  voyage  about  the 
same  time,  a  spirited  race  across  the  Atlantic  was  promised. 
The  Sirikis  left  Liverpool  on  April  4,  1838,  and  called  at 
Cork  on  her  way  out.  Captain  Roberts  was  in  command. 
The  voyage  proved  historic.  Both  steamships  were  on  the 
ocean  at  the  same  time,  and  both  masters  strained  every 
nerve  to  reach  New  York  first.  The  news  of  the  race  pro- 
voked the  greatest  excitement  in  New  York,  people  coming 
long  distances  in  order  to  greet  the  winner. 

There  was  considerable  speculation  concerning  the  time 
of  arrival,  and  the  enthusiastic  spectators  waited  day  after 
day,  crowding  the  lower  end  of  Manhattan  Island  to  gaze 
anxiously  and  longingly  seawards  for  the  first  sign  of  a 
trail  of  steam  in  the  sky.  At  last  the  cry  burst  out,  "There 
she  is,"  and  in  the  distance  were  descried  the  outlines  and 
wreaths  of  smoke  curling  from  the  funnel  of  the  leader, 
though  it  was  not  known  which  had  won.  She  proved  to 
be  the  Sirius,  which  had  steamed  across  the  Atlantic  in  17 
days.  On  the  following  day  the  Great  Western  arrived. 
She  put  out  from  Bristol  three  days  after  her  rival,  and  had 
made  a  fine  passage  in  15  days.  The  Americans  went  wild 
with  excitement ;  they  realised  the  significance  of  the  new 
force  which  had  come  to  bring  the  two  countries  nearer 
together.  The  ships  were  dressed  with  bunting,  and  vast 
crowds  bore  down  upon  the  waterside  to  explore  the  latest 
nautical  novelty. 

The  journey  of  the  Sirius,  however,  had  not  been  without 
its  measure  of  excitement.     The  night  before  she  entered 


•THE    BLUE   RIBBON   OF  THE   ATLANTIC      135 

New  York  the  captain  fouled  the  shoals  off  Sandy  Hook. 
As  the  weather  was  quite  calm,  and  the  tide  low,  the  master 
was  able  to  back  off  without  suffering  any  damage  when 
the  water  rose.  But  for  this  untoward  incident  the  vessel 
would  have  steamed  into  the  port  several  hours  earlier. 

Both  the  Great  Western  and  the  Sirius  made  several  trans- 
Atlantic  passages,  the  former  being  a  pronounced  financial 
success.  The  latter  ship  was  then  withdrawn  to  revert  to 
her  designed  purpose — trading  between  ports  around  these 
islands.  She  came  to  grief  finally  in  1847  while  running 
from  Glasgow  to  Cork  by  crashing  ashore,  during  a  dense 
fog,  in  Ballycotton  Bay,  and  became  a  total  wreck.  True 
to  the  spirit  of  the  times,  the  villagers  raided  her,  consider- 
ing the  wreck  their  lawful  prey.  The  boat  had  a  consign- 
ment of  Guinness's  stout  on  board,  and  the  salvors  (?) 
made  so  merry  over  this  unexpected  streak  of  fortune  that 
two  of  their  number  succumbed  to  their  excesses.  The 
main  shaft  of  the  vessel  was  recovered  and  was  set  up  in 
a  neighbouring  mill,  where  it  is  still  working,  while  the 
ship's  bell  was  secured  and  hung  in  the  chapel  at  Ballin- 
rostig,  where  it  still  summons  the  faithful  to  prayer.  The 
wreck  lay  in  the  bay  uncared  for  and  practically  forgotten 
for  about  half  a  century,  when  she  was  recovered  by  a 
salvage  firm.  The  latter  received  a  competent  reward  for 
their  trouble,  inasmuch  as  the  whole  of  the  metal  was  pur- 
chased by  a  Birmingham  firm,  to  be  fashioned  into  sou- 
venirs, while  the  stout  timbers,  converted  almost  into  jet 
by  their  long  immersion  in  the  salt  water,  were  also  found 
highly  useful. 

The  success  of  this  initial  experiment  for  the  accelerated 
transportation  of  passengers  and  mails  led  to  the  founda- 
tion of  the  great  Atlantic  mercantile  marine,  as  narrated 
elsewhere,  and  the  inauguration  of  the  Cunard  Line.  The 
latter  fleet,  however,  was  never  in  competition  from  point 
of  speed  until  1848,  when  the  United  States,  impressed  with 
the  success  with  which  Messrs.  Cunard,  Burns,  and  Mac- 
Iver  were  meeting  in  their  new  undertaking,  decided  to 
compete  for  the  Atlantic  trade.     Accordingly,  an  American 


136    STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST  OF   THE   WORLD 

line  was  established,  and  a  stately  ship,  the  Washington, 
was  launched  to  uphold  American  dignity.  Southampton 
was  selected  as  the  British  terminal,  a  choice  which  has 
remained  unchanged  to  this  day,  while  of  course  the  rival 
line  had  its  headquarters  at  Liverpool,  which  likewise  never 
has  been  forsaken  by  the  Cunard  Company. 

What  might  be  termed  the  first  trans-Atlantic  race— the 
contest  between  the  Sirius  and  the  Great  Western  was 
unequal,  seeing  that  the  ships  left  the  home  port  on  differ- 
ent dates — was  that  between  the  Cunard  "flyer"  Britannia, 
some  eight  years  old,  and  the  spick-and-span  new  rival 
Washington,  both  of  which  sailed  from  New  York  on  the 
same  day.  The  latter  proved  no  match  for  the  Cunarder, 
which  won  in  a  canter,  being  berthed  in  the  Liverpool 
docks  two  days  before  her  competitor  reached  Southampton. 

The  blood  of  the  Americans  was  now  roused  thoroughly. 
They  smarted  under  defeat,  and  determined  to  spare 
no  effort  to  trounce  the  English  company  completely. 
To  this  end  the  Collins  Line  v.as  founded,  and  the  Govern- 
ment came  to  its  assistance  in  a  most  liberal  manner 
with  a  subsidy  of  ;6 187,750,  or  $938,750,  per  annum.  This 
company  placed  four  large  boats,  named  respectively  Arctic, 
Atlantic,  Baltic,  and  Pacific,  in  commission  in  1850.  The 
Cunard  Line  was  deposed  severely  by  these  ships;  in  speed 
their  boats  were  outclassed  completely,  but  their  owners 
were  in  no  way  perturbed.  They  knew  that  the  Americans 
were  putting  forth  every  nerve  to  maintain  their  position, 
and  were  suffering  very  heavily  financially  in  the  effort  to 
hold  the  Blue  Ribbon.  Mr.  Maclver  likened  the  tactics 
to  "smashing  windows  with  sovereigns,"  and  the  simile 
was  not  inappropriate,  as  subsequent  events  proved.  The 
Collins  Line  was  somewhat  surprised  to  find  that  it  could 
not  sweep  the  Cunarders  off  the  Atlantic  as  it  had 
anticipated,  a  fact  due  to  the  firm  hold  which  the  English 
company  had  secured  among  the  travelling  public.  The 
latter  was  not  scared,  but  at  the  same  time  it  made  its  move 
to  meet  the  situation  by  vessels  built  in  consonance  with 
the  march  of  progress,  rather  than  run  untold  risks  to  life, 


'-   0 


'THE   BLUE   RIBBON   OF  THE   ATLANTIC      137 

limb  and  boat  in  the  determination  to  regain  speed 
supremacy. 

For  four  years  the  American  competition  was  extremely 
fierce,  and  their  boats  ruled  the  Atlantic.  Then  they  paid 
the  penalty  for  their  mistaken  zeal  and  incompetence  in 
navigation.  A  whole  string  of  disasters  overwhelmed 
them.  The  Arctic  was  run  down  by  the  Vesta  and  sank^ — 
only  15  of  her  233  passengers,  and  31  of  the  crew  of  135, 
were  saved.  This  calamity  produced  a  scare,  and  the 
Collins  Line  lost  favour.  But  worse  was  to  follow.  Less 
than  six  months  later  the  Pacific  sailed  from  Liverpool  and 
was  never  seen  nor  heard  of  again,  while  the  underwriters 
were  left  poorer  by  $2,000,000,  or  ^^400,000.  Money  was 
provided  hastily  to  provide  two  new  ships  to  replace  the 
lost  liners,  but  it  was  too  late  !  The  new  Cunarders  were 
afloat,  and  they  in  turn  outpaced  the  Collins  vessels  hope- 
lessly in  point  of  speed,  seaworthiness  and  comfort.  The 
public,  too,  had  learned  the  bitter  cost  of  wild  speed,  and 
extended  its  patronage  to  the  steady  and  safe  Cunard  Line. 
The  American  line  fought  desperately  against  overwhelm- 
ing odds  and  ill-fortune  for  four  years,  incurring  such 
colossal  losses  that  at  last  the  United  States  Government 
felt  obliged  to  intervene.  The  subsidy  was  withdrawn  ;  the 
Line,  deprived  of  its  sheet-anchor,  collapsed  in  1858,  and 
the  Cunard  was  left  in  undisputed  command  of  the 
Atlantic,  while  no  further  vessels  sailed  under  American 
auspices  until  1892,  when  the  Inman  Line  transferred  its 
allegiance  from  the  British  to  the  x\merican  flag. 

The  harvest  which  the  Cunard  Line  was  reaping  was  too 
rich  not  to  tempt  further  enterprising  spirits  to  participate 
in  it,  notwithstanding  the  fate  that  had  overwhelmed  the 
former  competitor.  The  Inman,  or  International,  Line 
appeared  on  the  Atlantic  with  screw  propellers,  and  was 
instrumental  in  overcoming  the  prejudice  to  the  new- 
method  of  propulsion.  This  new  aspirant  was  the  first 
steamship  line  to  carry  emigrants,  which  hitherto  had  been 
regarded  somewhat  as  a  superfluity  in  steamship  traffic, 
but  which  to-day  are  recognised  as  one  of  the  mainstays 


138    STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST  OF  THE   WORLD 

of  trans-Atlantic  commerce.  By  slow  and  well-considered 
evolution  the  Inman  Line  crept  up  to  the  pace  of  the 
Cunarders,  and  at  last  eclipsed  them,  so  that  for  some 
years  it  held  the  blue  ribbon  of  the  Atlantic,  by  bringing 
New  York  within  eight  days'  steaming  of  England, 

It  is  interesting  to  observe  how  the  length  of  the  passage 
has  been  cut  down  persistently  and  steadily.  The 
Britannia,  with  her  displacement  of  2000  tons,  and  engines 
developing  740  indicated  horse-power,  giving  an  average 
speed  of  8J  knots,  occupied  between  14  and  15  days  on  the 
journey,  as  compared  with  the  17  days  taken  by  the  Sirius. 
The  Collins  Line  brought  the  passage  down  to  about  ten 
days,  and  then  the  Cunard  Company  replied  with  boats 
which  in  turn  cut  the  voyage  to  8J  days,  the  fastest  trip 
being  made  by  the  Russia,  of  2,960  tons  and  3,100  horse- 
power, with  8  days  28  minutes.  This  vessel,  it  may  be 
mentioned,  covered  630,000  miles  on  the  Atlantic  under 
Captain  Cook,  without  an  accident  of  any  description,  and 
carried  between  the  two  worlds  over  26,000  passengers. 
The  Inman  Line  reduced  the  journey  to  less  than  8  days 
by  means  of  the  City  of  Brussels,  which  ran  from  Queens- 
town  to  New  York  in  7  days  23J  minutes  in  1869,  and  the 
City  of  Berlin,  which  covered  the  journey  in  the  opposite 
direction  in  7  days  14  hours  12  minutes. 

In  1852  the  Allan  Line  appeared  with  a  steamship  service 
between  Great  Britain  and  Canada  direct,  where,  although 
startling  speeds  were  not  aimed  at,  a  new  development  was 
inaugurated  by  the  carriage  of  mails  between  these  islands 
and  Quebec,  avoiding  the  delays  that  ensued  by  landing 
them  at  Halifax.  In  1856  the  Hamburg  American  Line 
came  into  existence,  followed  by  the  North  German  Lloyd 
Company  two  years  later,  and  the  French  rival,  La  Com- 
pagnie  Generale  Transatlantique  in  1862.  Although  all 
these  lines  were  destined  to  play  an  important  part  in  the 
struggle  for  speed  supremacy  later,  their  introduction  did 
not  affect  the  fortunes  of  the  Cunarders  to  any  marked 
degree,  since  the  pioneer  company  was  entrenched  too 
firmly.     A  little  later  three  other  competitors  entered  the 


•THE   BLUE  RIBBON  OF  THE  ATLANTIC     139 

lists,  namely,  the  Guion,  National,  and  the  White  Star 
Lines,  so  that  by  1879  the  Atlantic  became  somewhat 
crowded,  and  the  fight  for  mastery  commenced  in  grim 
earnest. 

The  gauntlet  was  thrown  down  by  the  Guion  line,  who 
beat  the  Cunarder  Sidonia  with  their  vessel  Adelaide. 
The  White  Star  boats,  however,  drew  first  blood.  They 
clipped  hours  off  the  journey,  and  the  Cunard  Line,  which 
had  been  eclipsed  by  the  Inman  vessels,  were  relegated  to 
a  still  lower  position.  The  Inman  Line  resented  the  new 
arrival  most  keenly,  as  their  fine  runs  became  eclipsed. 
However,  they  buckled  up  their  girths,  and  contracted  with 
the  Clyde  for  two  new  steamers,  the  City  of  Rome  and  the 
City  of  Berlin.  The  former,  440  feet  in  length  and  of 
4,780  tons,  became  the  "Pride  of  the  Atlantic,"  and  in  1873 
cut  down  the  journey  to  7  days  18  hours  50  minutes. 
For  some  reason  or  other  the  liner  was  not  considered 
satisfactory  by  the  owners,  and  accordingly  was  returned 
to  the  builders.  The  second  ship  did  better,  reducing  the 
previous  vessel's  run  by  4  hours  38  minutes  in  1874. 
The  City  of  Berlin  was  the  largest  ship  which  had 
appeared  up  to  this  time,  being  488  feet  in  length  and  of 
5,526  tons. 

The  White  Star  Line  replied  immediately  with  two 
vessels  455  feet  in  length  and  5000  tons,  named  respect- 
ively the  Germanic  and  Britannic.  In  1877  the  Inman 
record  was  eclipsed  with  a  passage  of  7  days  10  hours 
50  minutes,  by  the  latter  vessel  going  westward,  while  her 
sister  ship  put  many  doughty  records  to  her  credit  before 
she  finished  her  career  in  the  passenger  service.  In  1891, 
when  seventeen  years  old,  and  when  faster  vessels  were 
speeding  to  and  fro,  she  came  home  on  one  occasion  in 
7  days  7  hours  37  minutes. 

There  is  one  point  which  must  be  explained  in  connec- 
tion with  these  contests  for  the  Blue  Ribbon  of  the  Atlantic. 
The  course  is  not  laid  from  port  to  port.  So  far  as  Liver- 
pool is  concerned,  it  reaches  from  Daunt's  Rock  off  Queens- 
town,  or  the  Fastnet,  to  Sandy  Hook,  while  in  the  case 


I40    STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

of  the  boats  travelling  via  the  English  Channel  the  distance 
is  between  Bishop's  Rock  off  the  Scilly  Islands,  or  the 
Needles,  and  Sandy  Hook.  Then,  again,  the  distance 
varies  according  to  the  season  of  the  year,  when  either  the 
northern  or  southern  route  is  being  taken,  and  whether  the 
vessel  is  travelling  eastwards  or  westwards.  Whereas  by 
the  north  track  eastwards  the  distance  from  the  Fastnet 
to  Fire  Island  lighthouse  is  2,699  rniles,  by  the  south  track 
in  the  same  direction  it  is  2,779  miles.  Westwards  the 
journey  by  the  north  track  between  the  same  two  points 
is  2,726,  and  2,813  miles  by  the  southern  lane,  which  is 
followed  in  summer. 

The  Guion  Company  made  a  powerful  bid  for  public 
support  with  the  Arizona,  which  brought  the  record  down 
to  7  days  3  hours.  Travellers  now  began  to  talk  con- 
fidently of  the  time  when  the  Broad  Atlantic  would  be 
spanned  in  less  than  a  week,  and  this  anticipation  was  sup- 
ported by  the  Cunarder  Servia  of  7,392  tons,  515  feet  in 
length,  and  9,900  horse-power,  the  fastest  journey  of  which 
was  7  days  i  hour  38  minutes  from  New  York  harbour  to 
Queenstown.  The  Cunard  achievement  was  shortlived, 
however,  as  the  Inman  Line  brought  out  the  second  City 
of  Rome  in  1881,  shortly  after  the  Servia  was  placed  in 
commission.  This  was  a  fine  vessel,  542  feet  in  length 
and  of  8,144  tons,  which  notched  20  knots  an  hour  on  her 
trials.  When  she  settled  down  to  her  stride  she  sent  the 
Cunarder's  achievement  by  the  board  with  a  run  of  6 
days  21  hours.  The  Atlantic  was  spanned  within  the 
week.  The  Guion  Line  resented  this  speeding-up,  and  as 
a  challenge  produced  the  Alaska,  of  6,932  tons  and  fitted 
with  engines  of  10,000  indicated  horse-power.  This  vessel, 
from  her  turn  of  speed,  was  the  first  to  receive  the  title  of 
"Greyhound  of  the  Atlantic,"  because  she  outran  all  her 
competitors  by  covering  the  journey  in  6|  days.  In  turn 
the  Alaska  was  eclipsed  by  the  American  of  the  National 
Line,  a  smaller  ship,  which  made  the  passage  still  shorter 
by  clipping  oiT  a  further  4 J  hours.  The  Cunard  retorted 
with  the  Oregon,  which,  before  she  w^as  run  into  and  sank. 


•THE   BLUE  RIBBON  OF  THE  ATLANTIC     141 

though  happily  without  the  loss  of  a  single  life,  pulled  the 
time  down  to  6  days  10  hours. 

Why  was  this  rapid  development  in  speed  maintained, 
and  in  a  way  encouraged  by  the  various  competing  lines? 
This  is  an  obvious  question.  Then,  as  now,  the  passenger 
was  the  deciding  influence.  The  fastest  boats  received  the 
traffic ;  and  also  there  were  the  mails  and  the  subsidy 
attached  to  their  carriage.  The  respective  Governments 
were  compelled  by  the  iron  fist  of  business  exigencies 
to  send  letters  by  the  quickest  route,  and  the  companies 
were  always  striving  for  the  unattainable — the  fastest  boat. 
This  tendency  kept  the  shipbuilders  strung  to  a  high  pitch 
of  development,  because  the  firm  which  could  offer  the 
"latest  development  in  ship  design  "  was  that  which  would 
secure  the  orders. 

Still  there  was  no  rest  for  the  various  lines.  The  Cunard 
Company  had  been  vanquished  so  completely  that  it 
became  roused  thoroughly  and  determined  to  make  a 
spirited  bid  far  and  away  in  front  of  anything  which  had 
been  achieved  up  to  this  time.  The  Umbria  and  Etruria 
were  the  two  ships  which  they  laid  upon  the  Atlantic  for 
the  other  lines  to  play  to.  Both  were  handsome  vessels, 
and  both  represented  striking  advances  upon  anything 
which  had  been  seen  up  to  this  period.  They  were  sister 
ships,  with  a  length  of  500  feet,  a  gross  tonnage  of  8,127 
tons,  with  accommodation  for  550  first-class  passengers 
and  800  emigrants.  They  were  equipped  luxuriously,  and, 
indeed,  may  be  said  to  have  ushered  in  a  new  epoch  in 
trans-Atlantic  travel  so  far  as  the  passengers'  convenience 
and  welfare  were  concerned,  while  their  engines,  develop- 
ing 14,500  horse-power,  were  able  to  produce  a  speed  of 
19^  knots  per  hour. 

As  may  be  supposed,  they  retrieved  the  long-lost  laurels 
for  the  Cunard  Company,  as  the  passage  was  reduced 
to  within  two  hours  of  the  six  days.  Launched  in  1884, 
these  twin  craft  ranked  as  the  Cunard  Company's  crack 
boats  for  some  eight  years.  Even  then  their  life  was  not 
exhausted,    nor   were    their   speed    qualities    impaired,    as 


142     STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST  OF  THE   WORLD 

in  September  and  August,  1892,  the  Etruria  covered  the 
2,787  miles  between  Queenstown  and  Sandy  Hook  in 
6  days  22  minutes,  and  6  days  20  minutes  respectively  ! 
while  in  July  of  the  same  year  the  Umbria,  on  her  eighty- 
second  trip,  made  the  2,780  knots  in  daily  runs  of  461,  502, 
427,  592,  and  388  knots,  bridging  the  ocean  in  5  days 
22  hours  7  minutes,  at  an  average  speed  of  i9'57  knots  per 
hour.  In  fact,  the  performances  of  these  two  boats,  in 
what  might  be  termed  the  evening  of  their  lives,  were  most 
astonishing,  and  were  a  striking  tribute  to  the  workmanship 
and  skill  of  their  builders. 

Rivals  did  not  spurn  the  gauntlet  thrown  down  by  the 
Cunard  Company.  The  White  Star  Line  were  soon  in 
the  field,  matching  the  Cunard  flyers  with  the  Teutonic 
and  Majestic.  Both  these  boats  vindicated  the  confidence 
of  their  owners  and  builders.  The  Majestic  romped  over 
the  2,777  knots  at  20' 11  knots  in  July  1891,  covering  the 
journey  in  5  days  18  hours  8  minutes,  while  her  sister  ship, 
Teutonic,  did  even  better  at  20*35  knots  per  hour  in  August 
of  the  same  year,  over  2,778  knots  in  5  days  16  hours 
31  minutes.  The  Inman  Line  also  accepted  the  challenge. 
They  rivalled  the  Cunarders  and  White  Star  boats  with  the 
City  of  New  York  and  City  of  Paris  built  on  the  Clyde. 
These  liners  exceed  the  Cunarders  in  every  point,  being 
560  feet  in  length  over  all,  with  a  beam  of  63J  feet,  and  a 
moulded  depth  42  feet,  while  they  are  of  19,498  gross  tons. 
It  was  stipulated  that  they  should  have  engines  capable  of 
driving  them  through  the  water  at  a  minimum  speed  of 
20  knots  per  hour. 

These  two  vessels  created  a  considerable  stir.  At  the 
time  they  were  the  prettiest  boats  on  the  Atlantic.  They 
resembled  gigantic  luxurious  yachts,  rather  than  Atlantic 
greyhounds,  with  their  schooner  bows,  short  bowsprit 
and  long,  overhanging  stern.  They  also  marked  a  new 
era  in  trans-Atlantic  travel,  as  they  were  driven  by  twin 
screws. 

These  magnificent  sister  ships  played  havoc  with  existing 
records,  and  retrieved  the  Blue  Ribbon  easily.     For  the 


-  d:„ 


o  c 


H    -5  ,/• 


-  -S       M 


'THE   BLUE  RIBBON  OF  THE  ATLANTIC     143 

first  time  the  two  worlds  were  brought  well  within  six 
days'  travelling  of  one  another.  The  City  of  Paris  did 
the  journey  in  5  days  14  hours  24  minutes,  and  her  sister 
covered  the  distance  in  5  days  20  hours  39  minutes.  The 
Inman  Line  regained  its  lost  trophy,  and,  as  events  have 
proved,  this  was  the  last  attempt  made  by  this  company  to 
compete  in  the  race  for  speed.  Shortly  afterwards  the  two 
boats  were  transferred  from  the  British  to  the  United  States 
flag,  and  were  supplemented  by  the  American-built  liners 
St.  Louis  and  St.  Paul.  These  four  boats  are  still  in 
regular  service,  have  scurried  regularly  across  the  Atlantic 
for  twenty  years,  and  are  practically  as  good  to-day  as  when 
first  launched.  The  prefix  "city  of"  was  abandoned,  and, 
after  her  adventure  on  the  Manacles,  the  Paris  was  over- 
hauled, repaired,  re-decorated  and  re-christened  Phila- 
delphia, so  that  the  craft  of  the  Inman  Line  now  bear  the 
names  of  four  prominent  United  States  cities. 

The  pace  grew  hot  in  the  early  'nineties.  Scarcely  had 
the  Inman  Line  ordered  their  fast  boats,  when  the  Cunard 
followed  suit,  going  one  better  with  the  Lucania  and  the 
Campania.  These  two  vessels  not  only  recorded  a  marked 
advance  in  speed,  but  also  in  naval  architecture  generally. 
The  twin  screws  having  emphasised  their  superiority  from 
all  points  of  view,  were  a  feature  of  the  new  Cunarders. 
Each  vessel  measured  620  feet  in  length,  by  65I  feet  beam, 
with  a  depth  from  upper  deck  of  43  feet,  and  was  of  12,950 
gross  tons.  The  two  sets  of  triple  expansion  engines  were 
the  most  powerful  ever  set  in  the  hull  of  a  mercantile 
steamer  up  to  this  date,  being  of  30,000  indicated  horse- 
power. 

These  two  vessels  swept  the  Atlantic.  On  her  first  trip 
the  Campania,  which  was  the  first  afloat,  could  not  be  let 
out  to  her  full  speed  owing  to  bad  weather  and  heavy  seas, 
so  that  the  run  from  coast  to  coast,  a  distance  of  2,865  miles, 
occupied  6  days  8  hours  34  minutes.  This,  however,  was 
the  quickest  maiden  trip  ever  placed  on  record,  and  at  times 
the  speeds  touched  20J  knots  per  hour.  One  day  when  the 
elements  were  kind  the  captain  and  engineer  gave  the  vessel 


144    STEAMSHIP  CONQUEST  OF  THE   WORLD 

the  rein,  and  she  notched  22  knots  per  hour,  as  well  as 
putting  up  a  day's  run  of  545  knots.  This  exceeded  the 
previous  best  daily  run  established  by  the  White  Star 
liner  Teutonic.  A  little  disappointment  was  evinced  by 
the  section  of  the  travelling  public  which  places  speed 
before  every  other  consideration,  that  the  Campania  did 
not  bring  the  trans-Atlantic  passage  within  6  days,  but 
the  vessel  dissipated  their  doubts  on  her  homeward  run 
by  covering  the  2,899  miles  between  Sandy  Hook  lightship 
and  Queenstown  in  5  days  17  hours  27  minutes.  For  the 
first  time  passengers  were  landed  in  Liverpool  on  the  sixth 
day  after  leaving  New  York. 

The  Campania  is  still  running  as  the  third  boat  in  the 
service  supplied  by  the  Lusitania  and  Mauretania,  and  is 
doing  better  than  ever,  her  steadiness,  regular  running  and 
seaworthiness,  as  well  as  comfort,  rendering  her  a  great 
favourite  among  the  patrons  of  the  Cunard  Line.  The 
Lucania  came  to  an  untimely  end  after  some  seventeen 
years'  work  by  being  burnt  out  while  lying  in  port.  The 
damage  inflicted,  aggregating  about  ^100,000  ($500,000), 
was  considered  too  great  to  render  the  vessel  worthy  of 
repair,  especially  as  the  whole  chess-board  of  the  Atlantic 
had  changed  under  further  competition,  so  she  was  broken 
up. 

Why  all  this  incessant  struggle  for  speed  ?  This  is  a 
point  which  may  strike  the  average  reader,  who  does 
not  understand  its  commercial  value.  In  the  first  place 
the  passenger  benefited  very  materially,  because  the 
spirited  competition  kept  the  various  lines  on  tenter-hooks 
and  compelled  them  to  keep  abreast  of  developments.  In 
the  earliest  days  rapid  evolution  was  only  to  be  expected 
as  marine  engineering  advanced  by  leaps  and  bounds. 
The  Government  fostered  the  activity  of  the  Cunard  Line 
by  giving  them  the  contract  for  the  mails.  When  Mr. 
Cunard  and  his  collaborators  secured  the  first  mail  contract 
which  brought  about  the  construction  of  the  Britannia,  the 
Government  undertook  to  pay  a  sum  of  ;^6o,ooo,  or 
$300,000,  per  annum  for  seven  years,  for  a  service  of  three 


'THE   BLUE  RIBBON  OF  THE  ATLANTIC     145 

ships,  but  this  was  altered  subsequently  to  ;^8 1,000,  or 
$405,000,  per  annum,  as  a  fourth  boat  was  insisted  upon, 
together  with  adherence  to  a  fixed  schedule  of  sailing 
dates.  Four  vessels  met  the  situation  perfectly.  This 
subsidy  was  regarded  with  favour  by  other  competitors, 
who  entered  the  lists  in  the  hope  of  wresting  the  contract 
from  the  pioneer  line,  more  especially  when,  in  1847,  the 
Government  increased  the  subsidy  10^173,340,  or  $866,700, 
per  annum,  in  return  for  a  double  service  to  meet  the 
increasing  traffic.  This  figure  remained  unaltered  until 
1868,  when,  owing  to  greater  competition,  the  Post  Office 
was  able  to  dictate  its  own  terms.  Accordingly,  advantage 
was  taken  of  the  situation  to  save  the  country  a  considerable 
sum  by  reducing  the  subsidy  to  ;^8o,ooo,  or  $400,000,  per 
year.  In  1869  this  price  was  lowered  to  ^'70,000,  or 
$350,000,  which  remained  in  vogue  until  1876,  when  the 
annual  lump-sum  payment  was  discontinued  in  favour  of 
a  poundage  basis,  varying  with  the  amount  of  correspond- 
ence carried  per  voyage.  This  enabled  other  lines  to  con- 
tribute to  an  improved  mail  service.  There  was  no  neces- 
sity to  hold  over  letters  until  the  sailing  dates  of  the 
Cunarders,  as  they  could  be  forwarded  by  the  first  boat 
sailing  after  posting. 

The  contest  for  the  Blue  Ribbon  was  one  of  the  most 
satisfactory  circumstances  for  the  British  shipbuilding 
industry.  Although  various  nations  were  competing  for 
the  honour,  the  boats  in  nearly  every  instance  were  built 
in  British  yards.  The  North  German  Lloyd,  the  Hamburg- 
America,  and  the  Inman  lines  obtained  their  fivers  from 
the  Clyde  or  Tyne,  as  did  also  the  Compagnie  G^n^rale 
Transatlantique,  so  that  our  marine  engineers  profited 
handsomely  from  the  strenuous  and  continued  struggle  for 
supremacy. 

But  the  closing  years  of  the  last  decade  of  the  nineteenth 
century  brought  a  complete  change.  The  German  com- 
panies, having  learned  as  much  as  they  could  from  the 
British  builders  and  owners,  ordered  their  boats  from 
native  yards,  and  the  French  company  followed  suit.     This 

L 


146    STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST  OF  THE   WORLD 

brought  new  aspirants  for  the  coveted  honour  upon  the 
Atlantic.  In  1897  the  North  German  Lloyd  brought  out  a 
magnificent  vessel,  Kaiser  Wilhelnt  der  Grosse,  of  28,000 
horse-power,  649  feet  in  length,  by  66  feet  beam,  and  dis- 
placing 20,000  tons.  It  was  calculated  that  the  engines 
were  of  sufficient  power  to  develop  between  22  and  23  knots. 
Her  first  few  trips  completely  fulfilled  anticipations,  and 
the  Blue  Ribbon  passed  from  Britain  to  Germany.  The 
British  lines  made  no  effort  to  regain  the  distinction,  as 
the  Atlantic  traffic  was  in  a  condition  of  transition.  It  had 
been  realised  by  the  travelling  public  that  comfort  was  pre- 
ferable to  speed.  The  German  rival  captured  the  honour 
easily,  as  on  her  maiden  trip  she  took  5  days  22  hours 
30  minutes  to  cover  3,050  nautical  miles  between  the 
Needles  and  Sandy  Hook,  with  an  average  speed  of  21"  30 
knots.  Coming  back  she  completed  the  2,962  miles  between 
Sandy  Hook  and  the  Eddystone  in  5  days  15  hours  25 
minutes.  Her  fastest  passage  was  made  at  23  knots  in 
November  1899.  Her  speed  was  wonderfully  consistent,  a 
year's  working  giving  an  average  of  2r94  knots  per  hour 
under  all  weathers  and  conditions. 

The  North  German  Lloyd  remained  in  undisputed  pos- 
session of  the  record  until  1900,  when  the  native  rival,  the 
Hamburg-American  liner  Deiitschland  appeared  on  the 
scene.  For  years  this  vessel  has  floated  as  the  finest  ex- 
pression of  the  marine  engineer's  skill  in  point  of  speed. 
From  end  to  end  she  measures  686  feet,  has  a  width  of 
67  feet,  and  is  44  feet  deep,  while  her  two  sets  of  quadruple 
expansion  engines  are  capable  of  exerting  35,000  horse- 
power. On  her  first  trip  the  record  of  the  Kaiser  Wilhelm 
der  Grosse  went  by  the  board,  for  the  new  aspirant  steamed 
over  the  3,073  nautical  miles  of  the  Atlantic  in  5  days 
16  hours  15  minutes,  at  an  average  speed  of  22*42  miles 
per  hour.  Coming  home  she  did  better,  for  she  ran  from 
New  York  to  Plymouth  in  less  than  a  quarter  of  an  hour 
within  the  5^  days.  Even  this  latter  record  was  eclipsed 
a  little  later  with  5  days  7  hours  38  minutes  from  New 
York  to  Plvmouth. 


•THE   BLUE  RIBBON   OF  THE  ATLANTIC     147 

The  contest  was  now  left  for  decision  between  the  two 
German  rivals,  and  the  North  German  Lloyd  replied  to  the 
Deutschland  with  the  KronpHnz  Wilhelm.  Virtually  this 
is  a  sister  ship  to  the  Kaiser  Wilhelm  der  Grosse,  being  of 
21,300  tons,  663  feet  in  length,  and  fitted  with  engines  of 
33,000  horse-power.  This  vessel,  however,  was  no  match 
for  the  Deutschland  in  point  of  speed,  although  she  accom- 
plished some  very  fast  trips. 

The  Hamburg-American  boat  remained  undisputed  mis- 
tress of  the  Atlantic  for  seven  years,  when  her  records  were 
ruthlessly  shattered,  and  the  Blue  Ribbon  wrested  from 
Germany  with  a  vengeance  by  the  performances  of  the 
Cunard  flyers  Lusitania  and  Mauretania.  These  are  the 
fastest  vessels  that  have  yet  appeared  upon  any  of  the  seven 
seas.  W^ith  their  length  of  780  feet,  beam  88  feet,  depth 
60J  feet,  and  a  displacement  of  43,000  tons,  they  out- 
stripped the  German  or  any  other  boats  built  up  to  this 
date  in  every  particular.  But  the  greatest  interest  was 
centred  in  their  enormous  engines,  which  develop  70,000 
indicated  horse-power,  and  more  particularly  because  the 
Parsons  turbine  was  employed  in  its  direct  form.  The 
whole  world  awaited  the  appearance  of  these  two  mam- 
moth liners,  as  it  was  anticipated  that  some  wonderful 
achievements  in  point  of  speed  would  be  established, 
especially  when  it  was  related  that  on  her  trials  the 
Mauretania  had  attained  a  speed  of  27!  knots  per  hour. 
Nor  w'ere  there  any  disappointments.  By  means  of  these 
two  vessels  the  Atlantic  was  shrunk  still  further,  and  the 
five-days'  passage,  which  had  been  dreamed  of  for  so  long, 
became  an  accomplished  fact.  The  Germans  did  not  respond 
to  the  challenge  thrown  down  by  the  oldest  Atlantic 
steamship  company,  and  so  these  two  vessels  have  had 
to  be  content  with  record-smashing  between  themselves. 
Up  to  the  time  of  writing  the  laurels  rest  with  the 
Mauretania,  the  two  records  of  the  sister  ships  being  as 
follows — 


L  2 


h8  steamship  conquest  of  the  world 


Liisituni 

'a. 

MaurdavJa. 

Ilays.       Hoiirs 

Mins. 

Days.       Hours.       Mins. 

Fastest  passage  west     .     . 

4           II 

42 

4           10         41 

Fastest  passage  east     .     . 

4           15 

50 

4           13          41 

Best  average  speed  west  . 

25-88  knots 

26-06  knots  per  hr. 

Best  average  speed  east    . 

25"57  knots 

25-89  knots  per  hr. 

Fastest  day's  run  west  .     . 

666  knots 

676  knots 

Fastest  day's  run  east  .     . 

608  knots 

614  knots 

Best    average    speed     for 

day  west 

26-69 

27-04 

Best    average    speed     for 

day  east 

27-10 

26-60 

What  is  the  price  paid  for  this  high  speed?  From  the 
company's  point  of  view  it  is  very  heavy.  The  Deutsch- 
land's  engines  were  designed  to  give  a  speed  of  23J  knots 
with  35,000  horse-power.  In  order  to  get  an  extra  1^  to  2 
knots  out  of  the  Cunarders  the  engini'-power  virtually 
had  to  be  doubled,  although,  of  course,  several  other 
factors  decide  this  question.  But  the  price  of  speed  is 
reflected  more  convincingly  in  the  coal  bills.  In  order  to 
get  the  8 J  knots  per  hour  out  of  the  740  indicated  horse- 
power engines  with  which  the  Britannia  and  her  sister  ships 
were  fitted,  38  tons  of  coal  per  day  were  required.  The 
latest  Cunarders  burn  1000  tons  per  day.  The  City  of 
Paris  and  Ne%v  York  average  320  tons  per  day  for  a  speed 
of  20  knots  per  hour.  The  Deiitschhmd,  with  her  112 
furnaces,  heating  sixteen  boilers,  gets  through  500  tons 
in  the  course  of  twenty-four  hours.  The  Kronzprlnccssin 
Cecilie,  which  is  tlie  latest,  finest  and  fastest  liner  fly- 
ing the  flag  of  the  North  German  Lloyd,  demands  124 
fires  to  eke  out  a  speed  of  23J  knots,  and  81  men  at  a 
time  are  kept  going  night  and  day  feeding  the  hungry 
124  fires  with  30  tons  of  fuel  per  hour.  Such  is  the  price 
of  speed,  and  the  cost  of  the  "Blue  Ribbon  of  the 
Atlantic." 

Does  it  pay?  The  success  of  this  crack  Cunarder  offers 
the  most  conclusive  reply  to  this  interrogation.  During 
the  year  191 1  the  Lusitania  alone  completed  sixteen  round 
trips  between  England  and  New  York,  covered  over 
100,000  nautical  miles,  and  carried  more  than  41,000 
passengers  during  this  period.     This  represents  an  average 


'THE   BLUE    RIBBON   OF   THE   ATLANTIC     149 

of  2,500  passengers  per  round  journey.  One  day  the 
Lusitania  and  a  20-knot  liner  left  New  York  within  a  few 
hours  of  one  another.  The  Cunard  boat,  in  round  num- 
bers, had  1000  passengers  aboard;  her  slower  rival  had 
less  than  200 !     Comment  is  needless.    ' 


CHAPTER    XI 

THE   STEAMSHIP    LANES    ACROSS    THE    OCEAN 

The  imaginative  writer,  in  his  effort  to  emphasise  the 
vastness  of  the  saU-water  expanses  dotting  this  globe,  seeks 
to  give  effectiveness  to  his  point  by  reference  to  "the  track- 
less sea."  It  is  picturesquely  descriptive,  and  to  a  certain 
degree  is  impressive,  but  nevertheless  it  is  quite  erroneous. 
The  watery  waste  is  no  more  trackless  than  the  British 
Islands  or  any  other  developed  countries  are  void  of  high- 
ways. True,  there  are  no  milestones  or  sign-posts  to  guide 
the  navigator  on  his  way.  Nevertheless  the  paths  of  the 
ocean  are  defined  just  as  clearly,  and  are  hugged  by  vessels, 
as  they  move  to  and  fro,  just  as  tightly  as  wheeled  traffic 
clings  to  the  macadamised  roadway. 

Some  years  ago  a  brilliant  French  mind  sought  to  apply 
dry-land  methods  to  the  restless  ocean.  A  city  street  was 
illuminated  by  lamps  on  either  side,  so  why  should  not  the 
same  principle  be  adapted  to  the  sea  to  indicate  the  right- 
of-way  to  the  speedy  liners?  He  suggested  that  two  rows 
of  buoys  should  be  strung  on  either  side  of  a  wide  swathe 
from  coast  to  coast.  These  buoys  were  to  be  moored  by 
chains,  and  connected  to  the  Atlantic  telegraph  cables. 
Each  buoy  was  to  be  equipped  with  a  light,  with  a  suffi- 
ciency of  fuel  stowed  in  its  body  to  keep  the  beacon 
glowing  for  two  months  continuously  without  attention.  An 
illuminated  sea  street  some  3,500  miles  in  length  sounded 
very  fascinating,  while  the  suggestion  that  each  buoy 
should  be  attached  to  the  submarine  cable  was  highly 
diverting.  This  scheme  was  advocated  in  th<'  interests  of 
safety.  In  the  event  of  an  accident  befalHng  a  ship  a  boat 
was  to  put  off  to  the  nearest  buoy  and  to  call  up  London, 
New  York,  or  Paris,  whichever  city  liappencd  to  be  nearest 

150 


STEAMSHIP    LANES   ACROSS   THE   OCEAN     151 

to  the  disabled  craft,  for  assistance.  In  this  manner  the 
perils  of  the  sea  were  to  be  mitigated  very  appreciably. 
Needless  to  say,  the  scheme  never  went  beyond  the  paper 
stage  :  the  maritime  nations  appeared  to  be  unutterably 
slow  to  recognise  its  merits.  Since  that  time,  however,  the 
latter  part  of  the  inventor's  dream  has  been  fulfilled  in  a 
different  manner — wireless  telegraphy. 

Yet  some  means  of  securing  greater  safety  to  those  pass- 
ing between  the  Old  and  the  New  Worlds  became  impera- 
tive. The  ports  on  the  United  States  sea-board,  which 
attracted  the  bulk  of  shipping  from  Europe,  then  as  now, 
were  New  York,  Boston,  Portland  and  Philadelphia.  This 
traffic  was  not  confined  to  the  transit  of  mails  and  pas- 
sengers by  any  means,  since  the  fast  boats  jostled  with 
slow-going,  heavily-laden  tramps  making  to  and  from  the 
same  centres.  The  two  classes  of  shipping — fast  and  slow 
— were  mixed  up  in  a  maze  in  a  limited  zone,  as  all  the 
routes  converged  rapidly  near  the  American  coast,  which 
being  very  rugged  and  dangerous  compelled  adherence  to 
certain  channels.  Navigators,  therefore,  ran  the  risk  of 
collision  every  hour  of  the  day  and  night  once  they  had 
passed  longitude  fiftv  degrees  going  west,  and  were  not 
clear  of  danger  until  this  line  had  been  crossed  on  the 
eastward  passage. 

At  that  time  there  was  tremendous  rivalry  between  the 
various  steamship  companies.  Steam  had  commenced  to 
emphasise  its  possibilities  on  the  Atlantic,  and  naturally  the 
owners  in  the  effort  to  capture  trade  and  patronage  spared 
no  effort  to  make  quick  runs.  In  cutting  down  the  dura- 
tion of  the  sea  journey  to  the  minimum,  the  vessels 
obviously  favoured  the  shortest  route  between  Europe  and 
America,  and  this,  as  reference  to  the  map  will  show,  lies 
close  to  the  Newfoundland  shore  with  its  dense  fogs,  ice- 
bergs and  other  perils. 

Two  other  factors  aggravated  the  situation.  The  steam 
engine  certainly  was  in  the  ascendant  as  a  propelling  agent 
for  ships,  but  sailing  vessels  were  more  common  in  these 
seas,  and  as  they  tacked  to  and  fro,  wandering  practically 


152     STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

to  all  points  of  the  compass  to  take  advantage  of  favourable 
winds,  thereby  fouling  the  routes  generally  followed  by  the 
steamships,  they  menaced  the  safety  of  the  latter  very 
seriously.  The  second  obstacle,  and  this  created  quite  as 
serious  a  danger,  was  the  fact  that  the  liners  cut  across  the 
great  fishing  ground  lying  to  the  south  of  Newfoundland. 
Fishing  fleets  put  out  from  Massachusetts,  Nova  Scotia  and 
Newfoundland  to  reap  the  harvest  of  the  sea  in  this  great 
field,  and  when  the  fisheries  were  in  full  swing  it  was  by 
no  means  uncommon  for  two  or  three  hundred  of  these 
craft  to  drift  with  their  nets  over  a  comparatively  small 
area.  To  these  hardy  folk  the  normal  perils  of  their  calling 
were  enhanced  by  the  danger  of  a  big  liner  crashing  into 
them  at  full  speed,  unseen  and  unheard  in  the  blanket 
of  mist  lying  upon  the  water.  No  record  has  been  kept  of 
the  number  of  fishing  vessels  which  have  been  run  down 
by  the  big  liners  in  their  mad  haste,  but  it  runs  into  scores. 
Under  such  conditions,  as  may  be  supposed,  disasters 
were  frequent.  Collision,  icebergs,  derelicts  and  ground- 
ing all  claimed  their  victims,  and  gathered  them  promiscu- 
ously from  the  ranks  of  mail  carriers,  tramps  and  wind- 
jammers. Many  a  vessel  tight  and  trim  put  out  from  the 
American  and  British  ports  never  to  be  seen  or  heard 
of  again.  The  North  Atlantic  holds  its  secrets  tightly,  and 
although  the  fate  of  these  craft  is  merely  conjectural,  it  has 
been  surmised  that  collision  either  with  another  boat  or  a 
floating  obstruction  was  responsible  for  the  greater  number 
of  these  mysterious  disappearances.  The  accident  to  the 
Collins  liner  Arctic  appears  to  support  such  a  contention. 
This  boat  left  Liverpool  for  New  York  with  about  370  souls 
on  board  on  September  21,  1854.  Six  days  later  the  liner 
was  blundering  through  the  fog  hanging  over  the  Grand 
Banks,  about  fifty  miles  south-east  of  Cape  Race,  when 
suddenly  there  loomed  through  the  mist  the  shadowy 
outlines  of  another  vessel.  The  two  boats  scarcely  had 
descried  one  another  when  there  was  a  terrific  crash.  When 
they  released  their  deadly  embrace  and  backed  awav, 
the    stranger,    the    French    steamer    Vesta,   gave   signs    of 


STEAMSHIP    LANES   ACROSS  THE   OCEAN     153 

foundering,  and  at  once  turned  to  make  for  the  harbour 
of  St.  John's,  Newfoundland.  At  first  it  was  thought  that 
the  Arctic  had  escaped  serious  damage,  except  to  her  upper 
works,  but  in  a  few  minutes  the  awful  intelligence  came  up 
from  the  depths  of  the  ship  that  water  was  coming  in 
rapidly,  and  that  the  fires  would  soon  be  extinguished. 
The  captain  turned  his  prow  towards  Cape  Race,  the 
nearest  point  of  land,  with  the  intention  of  running  ashore 
at  full  speed,  but  he  was  prevented.  A  heavy  gale  was 
raging.  After  four  hours'  labouring  with  wind  and  sea, 
the  furnaces  were  extinguished  by  the  rising  water,  and 
the  Arctic  shortly  afterwards  made  her  fatal  plunge  within 
a  few  miles  of  shore.  Only  forty-six  souls  were  saved. 
Most  of  the  boats  were  smashed  in  attempts  to  launch 
them,  and  a  large  hastily  improvised  raft,  which  the  sea- 
men had  fashioned  when  they  learned  the  vessel  was 
doomed,  and  on  which  seventy-six  people  sought  refuge, 
was  broken  up  by  the  waves,  leaving  a  solitary  survivor. 
The  French  vessel  was  more  fortunate,  since  she  succeeded 
in  making  St.  John's,  although  in  a  sinking  condition. 

Four  months  later  another  fearful  disaster  was  recorded, 
probably  in  the  same  part  of  the  North  Atlantic.  This 
victim  was  the  Pacific,  sister-ship  to  the  ill-fated  Arctic. 
She  left  Liverpool  on  January  23,  1856,  with  45  passengers, 
141  in  the  crew,  and  cargo  valued  at  ^400,000  ($2,000,000). 
She  w^as  never  seen  nor  heard  of  again ;  not  even  a  stick 
belonging  to  her  was  found.  Probably  she  got  caught  in 
the  fog  off  the  Grand  Banks,  and  either  blundered  into  a 
tramp  or  sailing  ship,  or  was  run  down  by  an  iceberg. 
These  disasters,  in  combination  with  innumerable  other 
catastrophes  of  a  minor  character,  brought  home  with 
compelling  force  the  perils  of  navigating  the  North 
Atlantic.  The  travelling  public  grew  somewhat  alarmed, 
and  as  is  usual  at  such  times,  demanded  some  means  of 
rendering  travelling  by  sea  safer  than  apparently  was  the 
case,  although  it  could  not  suggest  any  practical  way  of 
accomplisliing  this  end. 

In  the  meantime  a  brilliant  young  officer  in  the  L^nited 


154     STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST   OF  THE   WORLD 

States  Navy,  Matthew  Fontaine  Maury,  had  been  thinking 
and  working  long  and  hard.  He  had  been  placed  in 
charge  of  the  department  of  charts  and  instruments  of  the 
Hydrographic  Office  at  Washington.  Naturally  in  his 
duties  a  mass  of  material  of  every  conceivable  description 
relating  to  the  North  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  bearing  vitally 
upon  navigation,  came  under  his  notice.  Suddenly  an  idea 
occurred  to  him.  The  public  was  perturbed  by  the  frequency 
of  marine  disasters  off  the  American  sea-board,  owing  to 
the  chaotic  condition  of  the  routes  followed.  Could  not 
this  tangled  skein  be  straightened  out,  and  specified  routes 
elaborated  to  ensure  safer  sea  travelling  ?  By  studying  the 
charts  and  data  in  his  departments  he  observed  several 
outstanding  characteristics.  The  winds  and  currents  fol- 
lowed well-defined  lines  at  varying  times  of  the  year,  and 
were  tolerably  regular  in  their  occurrence.  Derelicts  were 
tossed  about  from  point  to  point  by  these  moving  forces; 
icebergs  were  released  from  the  northern  seas  to  follow 
approximately  the  same  paths  year  after  year,  and  pene- 
trated to  a  certain  southern  limit,  where  they  disappeared 
under  the  melting  action  of  the  Gulf  Stream ;  while  the 
greatest  enemy,  fog,  which  caused  the  Great  Banks  to  be 
so  fearful  a  danger  spot,  only  spread  its  pall  for  a  certain 
distance  to  the  south.  Moreover,  he  was  able  to  ascertain 
when  these  last-named  perils  assumed  their  most  formid- 
able aspect. 

He  went  farther.  He  foresaw  that  the  number  of  ships 
engaged  in  the  mail  and  passenger  services  must  increase, 
while  larger  dimensions  and  high  speed  were  inevitable 
with  progress.  Thereupon  he  elaborated  certain  lanes 
which  these  vessels  should  follow  when  passing  to  and  fro, 
and  suggested  that  these  tracks  should  be  reserved  exclu- 
sively to  this  class  of  traffic.  He  maintained  that  if  such 
a  procedure  were  followed  the  slower-moving  craft — 
tramps,  sailing-ships  and  fishing  boats — knowing  the 
tlioroughfares  frequented  by  the  high-speed  liners  would, 
in  their  own  interests,  give  them  a  wide  berth. 

This  was  a   rational   attempt  to   regulate   the   traffic   of 


STEAMSHIP   LANES   ACROSS  THE   OCEAN     155 

the  ocean,  somewhat  after  the  lines  adopted  in  the  control 
of  vehicles  in  crowded  city  streets.  When  the  scheme  was 
first  submitted  to  the  varied  mercantile  interests  in  1855, 
it  was  not  greeted  with  very  marked  enthusiasm.  Some 
lines,  recognising  its  advantages,  at  once  embraced  the 
idea ;  others  regarded  it  with  unveiled  hostility.  At  the 
time  there  was  considerable  rivalry  between  the  various 
lines  engaged  in  the  ocean-carrying  traffic,  especially  in 
connection  with  the  mails.  Maury's  projected  lanes  lay 
somewhat  to  the  south,  and  involved  a  longer  course  than 
that  which  was  generally  followed,  in  order  to  reduce  the 
sea-passage.  One  line  could  not  adopt  the  suggestion, 
otherwise  it  would  place  itself  at  a  heavy  disadvantage  in 
relation  to  its  spirited  competitors,  who  by  following  the 
short  sea-route,  and  thereby  reducing  the  length  of  the 
sea-passage,  would  not  be  slow  to  publish  the  fact  to 
attract  custom.  In  those  days,  as  now,  there  was  a  general 
tendency  to  reduce  the  sea  journey  to  the  minimum,  and 
the  fastest  line  following  the  shortest  route  obtained  the 
heaviest  traffic. 

The  terrible  catastrophes  to  the  Arctic  and  the  Pacific 
within  the  short  space  of  six  months,  and  the  loss  of  some 
400  lives,  followed  by  the  public  outcry,  caused  Maury's 
scheme  to  be  regarded  with  greater  interest  by  the  mer- 
cantile community.  It  was  observed  that  the  young  officer, 
in  preparing  his  route-map,  had  assisted  the  speedy  flyer 
as  much  as  possible  consistent  with  safety.  For  instance, 
there  was  set  out  what  are  known  now  as  the  "  northern  " 
and  the  "southern"  routes  respectively.  The  former  is 
followed  in  the  winter  and  the  latter  during  the  summer 
months.  The  indication  of  seasonal  tracks  revealed  the 
extreme  care  and  study  which  the  officer  had  bestowed  upon 
his  project.  From  the  data  at  his  disposal  he  had  found 
that  during  the  winter  a  shorter  path  might  be  followed 
safely.  The  icebergs  were  bound  up  tightly  bv  the 
northern  winter,  and  the  fog  zone  off  the  Grand  Banks 
shrank  to  smaller  area.  In  view  of  these  conditions  it  was 
safe  to  lay  out  a  path  more  to  the  north,  thereby  saving 


156    STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST  OF   THE   WORLD 

several  miles.  On  the  other  hand,  on  the  southern  route 
it  was  necessary  to  swing  more  towards  the  equator,  in 
order  to  compass  the  known  southern  limit  to  which  ice- 
bergs drifted,  and  to  escape  the  fog  area  which  in  summer 
becomes  extended. 

He  also  emphasised  another  useful  point,  and  that  was 
the  strict  observance  of  the  rules  of  the  road.  To  attain 
this  end  he  arranged  two  tracks,  one  to  be  followed  by 
steamships  eastward  bound,  and  the  other  for  those  going 
west.  The  rule  of  the  sea  is  that  vessels  shall  "keep  to  the 
right "  and  pass  one  another  on  the  port  side,  and  accord- 
ingly the  inner  track  was  for  west-bound  vessels.  This 
arrangement  was  indicated  in  such  a  way  that  the  possi- 
bility of  vessels  colliding  with  each  other  in  the  region 
where  the  danger  from  ice  and  fog  is  greatest  is  eliminated 
practically,  as  at  this  point  the  inner  and  outer  tracks 
on  both  the  northern  and  southern  routes  are  about  fifty 
miles  apart.  This  radius  was  provided  to  permit  a  captain 
on  the  inner  track  to  make  deviations  to  the  south  in  order 
to  compass  a  danger,  if  the  exigencies  arose,  and  yet  be 
safe  from  venturing  upon  the  right-of-way  of  the  steamers 
moving  in  the  opposite  direction. 

Although  the  suggestion  was  looked  at  askance  by  the 
various  lines  when  first  suggested,  the  merchants  and 
underwriters  of  New  York  instantly  realised  its  many 
advantages,  and  displayed  their  appreciation  in  a  practical 
way.  Shortly  after  the  project  was  launched.  Lieutenant 
Maury  was  presented  with  a  handsome  service  of  silver 
and  a  purse  of  five  thousand  dollars  in  gold  as  a  recogni- 
tion of  his  services  in  designing  the  steamer  lanes  and  in 
shortening  the  sailing  route,  compatible  with  safety,  be- 
tween Europe  and  the  northern  ports  of  the  United  States. 

It  was  not  until  1891,  however,  that  the  utility  of  these 
lanes  for  liners  became  formally  recognised  hv  the  mer- 
cantile community.  The  ocean  greyhounds  had  grown  in 
size  and  speed,  and  represented  far  larger  sums  of  money, 
than  in  the  'fifties,  so  that  the  risk  attached  to  the  practice 
of    following    indiscriminate    routes,    determined    by    the 


It 


£   3 


i  B    = 


158    STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST  OF   THE   WORLD 

captain,  whose  responsibilities  thereby  were  appreciated  very 
sensibly,  was  too  great  to  be  incurred.  Therefore  in  that 
year  the  Cunard,  Guion,  Inman,  National  and  White  Star 
Lines  mutually  agreed  to  accept  the  definite  lanes  first  laid 
down  thirty-six  years  before  by  Maury.  This  decision 
practically  inaugurated  the  opening  of  the  Atlantic 
thoroughfares,  as  some  such  combination  of  powerful 
interests  was  necessary  to  prevent  one  line  gaining  a 
doubtful  advantage  over  another  in  point  of  distance  and 
quick  passages. 

Once  the  ocean  highways  became  recognised  in  this 
manner  the  United  States  Hydrographic  Department 
spared  no  effort  to  keep  them  open  and  free  from  obstruc- 
tion, so  that  the  movement  of  vessels  might  be  facilitated. 
The  captains  following  these  lanes  are  requested  to  keep 
the  department  posted  with  full  information  respecting 
dangers  to  navigation,  such  as  icebergs,  derelicts,  etc. 
The  position  of  these  menaces  are  communicated  far  and 
wide  by  the  department,  both  on  its  monthly  charts,  and 
also  in  other  publications  issued  at  intervals  for  the  benefit 
of  all  those  whose  livelihood  is  on  the  broad  Atlantic. 

In  1898  there  was  another  conference,  and  on  this  occa- 
sion the  whole  of  the  trans-Atlantic  steamship  companies 
consented  in  a  written  agreement  to  follow  the  tracks  at 
first  laid  down  by  Lieutenant  Maury,  and  these  are  the 
lanes  along  which  tlie  huge  speedy  greyhounds  travel  to 
and  fro  to-day.  The  companies  practically  accepted 
Maury's  schedule  as  it  was  prepared  by  him  nearly  half 
a  century  previously.  The  only  radical  modification  was 
in  regard  to  the  time  of  the  year  when  the  northern  should 
be  superseded  by  the  southern  lane,  and  when  the  rever- 
sion to  the  former  should  be  made.  After  some  discussion 
it  was  decided  that  the  changes  from  the  northern  to  the 
southern  tracks  should  be  made  in  January,  and  from  the 
latter  to  the  former  thoroughfare  again  in  August.  It  w'ill 
be  seen  that  the  shorter  route  between  the  opposite  shores 
of  the  Atlantic  is  open  only  for  five  months  in  the  year — 
during  the  winter — but  this  is  a  secondary  consideration, 


STEAMSHIP   LANES   ACROSS  THE   OCEAN     159 

seeing  that  safety  to  life  and  property  was  the  principal 
incentive  for  mapping  these  lanes — not  speed.  If  the  latter 
were  all-important,  and  if  it  were  possible  to  expect  a 
greater  immunity  from  fog  and  ice,  a  more  northern  route 
still  could  be  taken,  but  in  the  North  Atlantic  fog  and 
ice  are  two  capricious  obstacles.  Consequently  the  lanes 
were  laid  far  to  the  south  of  the  worst  danger  spot.  Thus 
in  the  month  of  April  fog  may  be  expected  to  hang  over 
the  Grand  Banks  south  of  the  indicated  northern  tracks  for 
about  one-half  of  the  month.  On  the  other  hand  on  the 
inner  track  of  the  summer  route  at  longitude  forty-seven 
degrees  west,  where  the  captain  sets  his  course  north- 
westwards to  gain  New  York  or  Boston,  tlie  probability  of 
fog  is  reduced  to  about  six  days  in  the  same  month.  The 
danger  from  ice  increases  toward  the  northward,  and 
decreases  toward  the  southward  in  about  the  same  ratio 
as  the  fog.  Thus,  in  running  around  the  dangerous  tail 
of  the  Grand  Banks  of  Newfoundland  during  the  months 
from  mid-January  to  mid-August,  the  steamship  companies 
undoubtedly  pursue  a  course  consistent  with  the  wisdom 
of  definitely  recorded  experience.  When  the  steamship 
companies  investigated  Maury's  projected  water  highways 
dispassionately,  they  were  impressed  with  the  patience  and 
researches  that  he  must  have  made  to  have  laid  down  such 
excellent  paths.  It  was  recognised  that  had  the  highways 
been  followed  earlier,  the  great  majority  of  the  accidents 
which  had  befallen  vessels  in  the  North  Atlantic  might 
have  been  avoided. 

The  value  of  Maury's  work  is  proved  by  the  fact  that 
accidents  upon  the  lanes  he  laid  down  have  been  very  few 
and  far  between.  The  most  terrible  was  that  which  befell 
the  Titanic  on  April  14,  1912.  The  vessel  was  moving 
along  its  designed  track  on  the  southern  route — i.  e.  the 
inner  track  on  the  summer  route  which  lies  about  fifty 
miles  north  of  the  eastward  right-of-way — and  was  round- 
ing the  danger  area  in  exact  accordance  with  the  under- 
standing between  the  various  steamship  companies.  Every 
catastrophe   brings   its   lessons,   and    in    this   instance   the 


i6o    STEAMSHIP  CONQUEST  OF  THE   WORLD 

question  arose  as  to  whether  Maury's  paths  might  not  be 
revised  in  connection  with  the  summer  route,  and  be  set 
still  farther  southward,  especially  during  a  period  of  con- 
siderable Arctic  ice  movement,  such  as  prevailed  in  the 
spring  of  1912.  In  fact,  this  procedure  was  taken  imme- 
diately after  the  catastrophe  when  the  extent  of  the  field 
of  icebergs  became  known,  the  southern  route  being  moved 
about  four  degrees  farther  to  the  south,  almost  in  a  line 
with  the  Azores.  It  is  quite  possible  that  henceforth  this 
\/ill  stand  as  the  southern  route,  seeing  that  the  leading 
steamship  companies  mutually  agreed  to  adhere  to  this 
diverted  highway  in  order  to  ensure  greater  safety. 

Which  part  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean  is  the  most  densely 
crowded  with  shipping  ?  Probably  no  one  could  answer 
correctly.  Of  course  I  do  not  mean  to  take  into  account 
the  coasting  steamers  hugging  the  shore  lines,  more  or 
less,  but  the  broad  expanse  of  the  ocean.  At  the  present 
moment  the  most  crowded  area  of  this  busy  sea  is  that 
lying  between  45°  and  50°  of  longitude  west  of  Greenwich 
and  between  latitudes  38°  and  37°  40'  north.  At  this  point 
all  the  great  routes  meet.  The  Scandinavian  navigator 
after  he  has  traversed  the  troublous  waters  of  the  Pentland 
Firth,  and  has  got  the  forbidding  hump  of  Rockhall  w-ell 
to  his  south,  by  reaching  latitude  58"*  40'  north,  sets  his 
course  to  a  point  27°  farther  south  on  the  45th  meridian  ; 
the  German,  Dutch  and  Thames  liners  bound  to  points 
north  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  when  they  have  dropped  the 
Bishop's  Rock,  make  for  the  same  point;  the  vessels  sail- 
ing from  Havre  and  Liverpool  follow  the  self-same  prac- 
tice, the  Liverpool  liners  setting  the  course  from  the 
Fastnet  :  the  ships  from  Italian  and  other  Mediterranean 
ports,  when  they  have  emerged  on  to  the  Atlantic,  pass 
the  Azores  on  the  port  side  to  reach  38°  N.  by  45"  W. 
All  these  craft  then  follow  one  behind  the  other  along 
this  parallel  until  the  50th  meridian  is  gained.  Then  the 
captain  bound  for  New  York,  Boston  or  Portland,  after 
having  rounded  the  corner  off  the  Grand  Banks,  steers  a 
course  to  the   north-west,   while  the  skipper  en  route  for 


STEAMSHIP   LANES   ACROSS  THE   OCEAN     i6i 

the  Gulf  of  Mexico  swings  off  to  the  south.  Thus  the 
summer  lane  has  a  busy  junction  at  either  end  of  its  mid- 
Atlantic  section,  where  the  point  farthest  south  is  gained. 
This  diversion  of  the  trans-Atlantic  flyers  has  influenced 
the  low-powered  steamers — tramps — plying  between  the 
Mediterranean  or  Eastern  ports  reached  via  the  Suez  Canal 
and  New  York,  since  now  they  hug  parallel  36°  after 
rounding  Gibraltar  across  the  breadth  of  the  Atlantic  to 
meridian  65°,  when  they  swerve  rapidly  north-westwards 
to  enter  the  Hudson  River  estuary.  From  this  it  will  be 
realised  that  since  the  revision  of  the  sea  lanes  the  busiest 
open  ocean  spot  is  where  all  these  routes  converge  at  the 
southern  extremity  of  the  danger  zone. 

It  is  the  same  with  the  steamship  routes  to  other  parts  of 
the  world.  In  the  southern  seas  navigation  is  menaced 
by  the  icebergs  drifting  northwards  from  the  Antarctic, 
although  in  this  instance  there  are  no  Grand  Banks  with 
their  impenetrable  shrouds  of  fog  to  hamper  movement. 

However,  it  is  on  the  North  Atlantic,  where  fifty  or  sixty 
mighty  liners  may  be  afloat  simultaneously,  where  the 
necessity  for  the  defined  ocean  thoroughfares  is  experienced 
keenly,  and  where  to-day  Lieutenant  Maury's  work  and 
ingenuity  are  most  appreciated.  As  the  man  wdth  a  horse 
and  trap  does  not  venture  upon  a  railway  track  where 
mile-a-minute  expresses  fly  to  and  fro,  neither  does  the 
tramp  enter  the  lanes  set  aside  for  the  fast  mail-boats, 
running  between  Europe  and  North  America.  The  wind- 
jammer likewise  keeps  well  away  from  them,  while  the 
fishing  fleets  do  not  invite  disaster  by  trespassing  on  the 
fast  through  roads.  One  often  hears  trans-Atlantic  pas- 
sengers express  disappointment  at  not  having  seen  a  single 
vessel  during  their  journey.  I  have  explained  the  reason. 
Lieutenant  Maury  outlined  where  speed  might  be  main- 
tained with  perfect  safety — indicated  the  galloping  stretches 
of  the  Atlantic.  The  captains  of  the  flyers  take  full  advan- 
tage of  these  facilities,  and  all  slower  moving  boats  allow 
the  ocean  Juggernauts  to  have  the  whole  of  the  salt-water 
speedway  to  themselves. 


CHAPTER    XII 

THE   PERIL   OF   THE   ICE 

The  year  191 2  will  stand  as  a  milestone  in  the  annals 
of  the  mercantile  marine,  as  it  witnessed  not  only  the 
greatest  shipwreck  on  record,  but  because  it  drove  home 
to  the  public  more  forcibly  than  ever  the  serious  menace 
that  the  iceberg  offers  to  navigation,  and  the  helpless- 
ness of  man  when  he  is  pitted  against  such  a  formidable 
antagonist  of  the  deep.  The  wisdom  after  the  event  dis- 
played upon  this  occasion  was  extraordinary,  and  the 
average  person  might  have  been  pardoned  for  concluding 
that  the  loss  of  this  liner  was  the  first  accident  of  its 
character  on  record.  This  was  very  far  from  being  the 
case.  The  ice  claims  several  victims  every  year,  while  the 
number  of  ships  that  have  been  crippled  so  severely  as  to 
threaten  a  disaster  of  almost  equal,  if  not  greater,  magni- 
tude are  by  no  means  few  and  far  between. 

It  is  surmised  that  the  greater  proportion  of  the  mys- 
sterious  disappearances  associated  with  the  Atlantic  have 
been  due  to  collisions  with  icebergs.  On  March  i,  1854, 
the  City  of  Glasgow  left  Liverpool  with  500  souls.  She 
was  never  seen  or  heard  of  again.  A  similar  fate  befell 
the  Pacific.  Another  liner,  the  City  of  Boston,  disappeared 
without  leaving  a  trace,  although  a  boat  supposed  to  have 
belonged  to  her  was  picked  up  off  the  coast  of  Cornwall, 
with  the  brief  intimation  that  this  ship,  whose  name  was 
cut  upon  the  relic,  was  sinking.  Considerable  doubt  has 
been  expressed,  however,  as  to  whether  this  boat  ever 
belonged  to  the  vessel  in  question.  On  February  11,  1893, 
the  White  Star  vessel  Naronic  put  out  from  Liverpool  with 
70  souls  on  board,  to  disappear  from  all  mortal  knowledge. 
Several    months    later    a    Norwegian    vessel    sighted    and 

162 


THE    PERIL    OF   THE    ICE  163 

hauled  in  a  drifting  boat  off  the  Azores.  It  was  stove  in, 
but  examination  revealed  that  it  had  belonged  to  the 
missing  freighter,  as  well  as  the  fact  that  it  had  been 
launched  evidently  in  a  desperate  hurry,  as  the  lashings 
had  been  hacked  free  by  a  knife  or  other  weapon,  instead 
of  being  released  in  the  usual  manner  from  the  davits. 

How  these  boats  vanished  so  completely — swallowed  up 
by  the  ocean — remains  a  mystery  to  this  day,  but  there 
appears  to  be  a  general  consensus  of  opinion  that  they 
were  sent  to  the  bottom  by  the  ice.  So  much  for  total  dis- 
appearances from  which  nothing  definite  may  be  learned. 
From  the  survivors  of  a  deadly  embrace  with  this  foe, 
however,  much  information  has  been  gleaned.  The 
Arizona,  the  fastest  and  largest  liner  of  her  day,  was 
ploughing  Liverpoolwards  when  she  crashed  headlong  into 
a  berg.  Her  bow  was  torn  away  as  if  it  had  been  made 
of  paper.  The  captain  turned  her  round  and  ran  full  speed 
for  St.  John's,  which  port  he  contrived  to  reach,  to  land 
his  passengers.  Comment  has  been  raised  as  to  the 
indifferent  look-out  maintained  by  the  Titanic,  while  the 
action  of  her  captain  has  been  criticised  severely  because 
he  drove  at  full  speed  through  a  dangerous  zone  after 
warning  had  been  received.  In  1899  a  disaster  which  may 
have  eclipsed  even  that  of  the  year  191 2  was  within  an  ace 
of  being  recorded.  One  day  the  citizens  of  New  York 
were  astonished  to  see  a  stately  liner  come  limping  into 
the  harbour  with  her  bows  almost  awash.  She  had  come 
to  grief  in  the  deadly  ice  zone,  and  the  1,600  passengers 
aboard  had  received  a  terrible  fright.  The  captain  was  of 
an  exceptionally  cautious  character,  and  when  he  reached 
the  danger  area  he  reduced  speed  to  about  ten  knots  per 
hour,  and  doubled  his  watch  with  men  of  wide  experience 
and  keen  perception.  The  weather  was  clear,  and  yet, 
despite  the  precautions  observed,  the  liner  blundered  into 
a  growler  which  had  escaped  detection  by  the  look-outs 
and  navigating  officers.  P'ortunately,  in  this  instance  the 
vessel  struck  the  menace  a  safe  blow — her  side  was  not 
ripped  open — and  the  collision  bulkhead  held  against  the 

M  2 


i64    STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST  OF  THE   WORLD 

enormous  pressure  of  water,  though  the  fore  part  dipped 
alarmingly  low  into  the  sea.  The  captain  in  this  instance 
turned  his  head  towards  New  York,  proceeding  slowly,  so 
as  to  ease  his  crippled  craft,  and  in  this  manner  crept  into 
port.  This  narrow  shave  brought  home  to  the  travelling 
communities  in  no  uncertain  manner  the  extreme  difficulty 
that  mariners  experience  in  discovering  an  iceberg  under 
peculiar  conditions;  this  year  the  Corsican  had  an  equally 
lucky  escape. 

The  ice  movements  in  the  Atlantic  are  one  of  the  wonders 
of  Nature,  and  occasionally  passengers  are  treated  to 
glimpses  of  what  takes  place  in  the  ice-bound  country 
beyond  the  northern  snow-line,  and  are  able  to  admire 
the  fantastic  sculpture  of  Nature,  because  these  masses  of 
glittering  white  and  green  often  assume  the  most  beautiful 
forms.  One  I  saw  off  the  Strait  of  Belleisle  resembled  a 
lofty  arch,  through  which  the  vessel  could  have  passed 
easily;  another  had  two  pinnacles  like  the  twin  steeples  of 
a  church ;  while  in  a  third  instance  the  mass  assumed  the 
form  of  a  huge  hump,  with  a  cavernous  opening  in  one 
side  where  the  ice  had  been  eaten  and  broken  away. 

Most  of  these  bergs  are  fragments  of  the  great  ice  cap, 
formed  of  compressed  snow,  which  rests  upon  the  inland 
plateau  of  Greenland.  In  that  cold  country  the  rivers  are 
masses  of  ice,  which  are  continually  pushing  their  way 
towards  the  sea,  and  end  abruptly  at  the  water's  edge  in 
a  precipitous  cliff.  From  time  to  time  fragments  break 
off  under  natural  disintegration,  and  this  production  of 
bergs  is  known  as  calving.  The  pieces  vary  in  size.  Some 
are  small  lumps  weighing  only  a  matter  of  a  few  hundred 
tons ;  others  are  immense  chunks  half-a-mile  or  so  in 
length,  and  jutting  a  hundred  feet  or  more  above  the  water, 
with  the  flatness  of  the  top  side  relieved  by  pinnacles  and 
spires. 

There  is  one  popular  fallacy  in  connection  with  icebergs. 
It  is  frequently  stated  that  only  one-eighth  or  one-ninth 
part  of  the  total  height  of  the  berg  stands  out  of  the  water. 
In  other  words,  if  lOO  feet  are  seen  above  the  waves,  this 


THE    PERIL    OF    THE    ICE  165 

means  that  from  800  to  900  feet  are  submerged.  This  is 
an  error ;  it  is  about  one-eighth  or  one-ninth  of  the  total 
mass  or  weight  of  the  berg  which  is  visible — a  totally 
different  thing.  This  statement  was  proved  conclusively 
by  the  authentically  recorded  instance  from  the  Strait  of 
Belleisle,  where  a  berg  having  an  attenuated  spire  topping 
100  feet  grounded  hard  and  fast  in  96  feet  of  water  ! 

There  is  no  hard  and  fast  season  for  the  calving  of 
bergs.  The  production  takes  place  the  whole  year  round, 
but  the  majority  are  liberated  during  the  summer.  Some 
idea  of  their  number  may  be  gathered  from  the  fact  that 
as  many  as  7,500  have  been  sighted  and  recorded  in  the 
course  of  a  single  year  at  the  signal  station  at  Belleisle, 
irrespective  of  growlers.  Under  these  circumstances  it  is 
only  too  evident  that  they  are  "calved"  at  the  rate  of 
several  thousands  per  year. 

When  the  Arctic  winter  commences  to  break  under  the 
approach  of  spring,  the  bergs  commence  their  stately  march 
to  the  sea  and  more  southern  climes,  being  driven  in  an 
endless  procession  by  the  wind,  tide  and  current  through 
Davis  Strait  into  the  main  Labrador  stream.  Here  their 
pace  is  quickened,  as  this  current  swings  along  at  velocities 
varying  from  ten  to  thirty-six  miles  per  day,  and  when  the 
wind  is  favourable  the  masses  of  ice  make  long  journeys 
during  the  twenty-four  hours.  Fortunately  for  the  mariner 
only  a  very  small  proportion  ever  reaches  the  Grand  Banks. 
The  Labrador  coast  is  fringed  with  ridges  of  sharp  rocks, 
against  which  the  bergs  are  thrown  by  the  sea,  to  be  grounded 
and  pounded  to  impotent  fragments.  Many  of  those  which 
escape  this  premature  fate  collide  with  one  another,  and 
thus  bring  about  their  mutual  destruction,  splitting  into 
curiously  shaped  fangs  and  teeth,  as  the  ice  has  a  tend- 
ency to  divide  perpendicularly.  Consequently,  by  the 
time  the  berg  has  reached  the  limits  of  the  steamship 
traffic  it  has  depreciated  in  size  very  considerably,  although 
it  is  still  formidable.  The  bergs  are  borne  down  the  east 
coast  of  Newfoundland,  and  become  scattered  over  the 
Grand  Banks,  riding  ever  southwards,   until  at  last  they 


i66    STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST  OF   THE   WORLD 

enter  the  Gulf  Stream,  where  the  warm  water  brings  about 
their  annihilation  very  speedily.  Occasionally,  however, 
when  the  berg  is  of  abnormal  dimensions  (the  western 
edge  of  the  Gulf  Stream  flowing  round  the  tail  of  the  Grand 
Banks  is  streaked  with  bands  of  cold  water,  and  in  this 
region  the  cold  under-runs  the  warm  water  at  depths  vary- 
ing from  300  to  600  feet)  it  will  weather  the  width  of 
the  Gulf  Stream,  and  wander  much  farther  southward. 
In  some  instances  the  floating  sculpture  has  penetrated  as 
far  as  the  main  steamship  route  between  the  Azores  and 
the  English  Channel,  which  proves  that  they  must  have 
been  pushed  along  by  a  very  powerful  submarine  current 
flowing  in  the  opposite  direction,  or  transversely,  to  the 
Gulf  Stream.  Bergs  have  been  sighted  as  far  south  as 
Bermuda,  off^  Cape  Hatteras,  and  even  the  Florida  coast. 
It  is  a  fortunate  circumstance  for  the  mariner  that  the 
berg  seeks  self-destruction  very  rapidly,  even  if  it  clears 
the  rock-bound  Labrador  coast  or  avoids  collision  with  a 
fellow-wanderer.  As  warmer  climes  are  approached  the 
submerged  portions  become  melted,  causing  the  berg  to 
break  up.  Alternate  melting  and  freezing,  and  the  unequal 
strains  set  up  between  the  very  cold  contracted  interior  and 
the  warm  and  comparatively  expanded  exterior,  bring  about 
a  similar  result.  The  sun,  pouring  down  upon  the  exposed 
mass  during  the  day,  melts  the  snow  and  ice,  and  the  water 
penetrates  crevices  and  cracks.  At  night  this  water  freezes, 
and  splits  the  crevices  open  wider  and  wider  with  the  force 
of  a  wedge,  thereby  rending  the  berg  in  twain  or  a  thousand 
pieces. 

The  ice  of  which  the  berg  is  composed  is  exceedingly 
brittle.  It  can  be  split  in  two  by  the  blow  of  an  axe,  while 
even  the  concussion  arising  from  the  discharge  of  a  gun 
has  been  known  to  produce  fractures.  Traversing  a  field 
thickly  infested  with  bergs  is  an  uncanny  experience, 
especially  at  night.  One  might  think  that  a  naval  battle 
was  in  progress,  or  that  the  bergs  were  being  bombarded, 
from  the  deafening  noise,  resembling  explosions,  heard  on 
every  hand.     It  is  neither  the  one  nor  the  other;  the  bergs 


THE    PERIL    OF    THE    ICE  167 

are  breaking  up  under  natural  disintegration,  the 
reports  being  due  to  the  rending  and  cracking  of  the 
masses  of  ice  and  the  plunge  of  large  detached  pieces  into 
the  water. 

From  the  point  of  view  of  navigation,  the  greatest  danger 
incidental  to  the  berg  is  the  submerged  spur  which  often 
extends  for  some  distance  from  the  under-part  of  the 
obstacle,  and  which  is  as  dangerous  as  a  granite  or  coral 
reef.  The  captain  of  a  vessel  has  often  considered  himself 
clear  of  the  menace,  only  to  find  his  hull  ripped  open  from 
the  projecting  fang  of  ice  which  was  invisible.  The  British 
steamship  Nessmore  was  passing  through  the  southern 
fringe  of  the  great  ice-field  and  hit  a  berg  head-on,  stoving 
in  her  bows.  The  ship  made  port  safely  and  docked. 
Then  it  was  found  that  she  had  scraped  along  a  spur  for 
some  distance  just  above  the  keel,  for  there  was  the  cor- 
roborative mark  on  her  hull,  while  four  frames  were  found 
broken,  and  many  plates  had  been  cut  almost  through. 

The  ice  peril  is  not  confined  to  the  berg.  The  field-ice 
is  another  form  of  this  menace.  This  is  formed  along  the 
shores  of  the  Arctic  Ocean  and  Newfoundland  every  year, 
and  every  spring  sees  it  set  adrift.  This  ice  is  the 
accumulation  of  years,  and  may  range  from  twelve  to 
fifteen  feet  or  more  in  thickness.  As  a  rule  it  enters  the 
open  sea  in  small  patches,  but  these  gradually  come 
together  under  the  action  of  contrary  winds  and  currents, 
to  form  a  vast  mass  several  miles  in  length,  absolutely 
impassable,  and  broken  up  in  the  most  rugged  manner, 
with  hummocks  and  undulations,  while  here  and  there  may 
be  seen  the  wicked  pinnacles  of  bergs  embraced  by  the 
gathering  clumps.  This  floating  debris  is  swelled  every 
year  by  the  masses  let  loose  by  the  breaking  up  of  the  ice- 
seal  upon  the  St.  Lawrence  River,  which  emerges  into  the 
open  Atlantic  through  Cabot  Strait.  For  about  a  month 
every  year,  from  mid-April  to  mid-May,  this  strait  is  im- 
passable. The  ice,  in  its  endeavour  to  hurry  out  of  the 
gulf  into  the  Atlantic,  becomes  jammed  in  the  narrow  neck 
of  water,  to  form  a  solid  barrier  between  St.  Paul  Island 


i68    STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST  OF   THE   WORLD 

and  Cape  Ray.  This  block,  which  is  known  as  "the 
bridge,"  lasts  at  times  from  three  to  four  weeks,  and  it  is 
recorded  that  on  one  occasion  it  held  up  no  fewer  than  300 
vessels.  The  break-up  of  the  field-ice  precipitates  the 
greatest  danger  to  navigation,  as  then  the  bergs  which  have 
been  imprisoned,  perhaps  for  many  months,  are  liberated. 
These  are  the  evil  growlers,  which  lie  low  in  the  water, 
and,  being  dark  in  colour,  cannot  be  distinguished  very 
readily  or  easily  by  the  sharpest  pair  of  eyes. 

While  the  mariner  has  no  infallible  means  of  detecting 
the  immediate  presence  of  ice,  there  are  certain  signs  which 
may  assist  him  to  discover  his  enemy,  though  not  one  is 
dependable,  as  varying  conditions  enter  so  much  into  the 
question.  As  a  rule,  before  the  ice  is  seen  from  the  deck 
of  a  vessel  its  proximity  is  indicated  by  the  "blink."  This 
is  caused  by  the  reflection  of  the  rays  of  light  from  the  sun 
or  the  moon.  On  a  clear  day,  over  the  ice  on  the  horizon 
the  sky  is  much  paler  and  readily  distinguishable  from  that 
overhead,  so  that  a  sharp  look-out  becomes  urgent.  Under 
good  weather  conditions  a  berg  may  be  seen  from  a  con- 
siderable distance,  owing  to  its  glittering  brightness. 
Similarly,  on  a  clear  night  it  may  be  discerned  by  the 
effulgence,  or  light,  radiated  from  the  mass,  while  in  foggy 
weather  it  may  be  picked  up  by  its  apparent  blackness,  if 
such  a  term  may  be  used,  as  the  outline  is  revealed  in  a 
deep  shadow  through  the  whiteness  of  the  mist.  If  the 
fog-horn  or  syren  is  sounded  a  berg  may  be  discovered, 
and  its  distance  calculated  approximately.  The  time  elaps- 
ing between  the  blast  of  the  whistle  and  the  echo,  multiplied 
by  550,  will  give  the  distance  of  the  peril.  Thus,  if  two 
seconds  elapse  between  the  blast  and  the  echo,  and  550  is 
multiplied  by  2,  the  result — 1,100 — represents  the  distance 
in  feet  between  the  berg  and  the  ship.  Icebergs  often 
reveal  themselves  by  the  sounds  produced  as  they  break 
up,  while  the  absence  of  swell,  or  wave  motion,  in  a  fresh 
breeze  is  an  indication  of  land  or  ice  upon  the  weather  side. 
The  appearance  of  herds  of  seals  or  flocks  of  birds  far 
from  land  betrays  the  proximity  of  ice,  while  a  fall  in  the 


THE    PERIL    OF    THE    ICE  169 

temperature  of  the  atmosphere,  and  also  of  the  water  under 
certain  conditions,  are  useful  guides. 

None  of  these  indications,  however,  are  infallible.  The 
growler,  for  instance,  cannot  be  discovered  by  any  of  the 
foregoing  indications.  There  is  a  glorious  opportunity 
for  inventive  ingenuity  in  the  perfection  of  a  simple 
apparatus  which  will  detect  accurately  the  presence  of  ice 
in  any  form.  A  step  towards  the  realisation  of  this 
objective  has  been  made  by  Dr.  H.  T.  Barnes,  a  distin- 
guished professor  of  physics  at  McGill  University,  Mon- 
treal. He  has  evolved  what  he  terms  an  electro-micro- 
thermometer,  which  works  upon  the  same  principle  as  the 
electrical  resistance  thermometer.  The  professor  himself 
carried  out  repeated  experiments  with  the  apparatus  in  the 
St.  Lawrence  River,  and  during  the  summer  of  1910  it  was 
used  on  board  the  Canadian  Government  steamer  Stanley 
during  her  visit  to  Hudson  Bay.  These  experiments  and 
practical  tests  were  highly  encouraging,  and  there  is  every 
hope  that,  when  perfected,  the  device  not  only  will  detect 
the  proximity  of  ice,  but  also  give  warning  of  the  approach 
to  land  and  shoal  water. 

The  iceberg  has  certain  uses,  though  these  do  not  affect 
the  luxurious  modern  and  speedy  liner.  Occasionally 
tramps,  when  traversing  the  field,  seize  the  opportunity 
to  obtain  a  stock  of  ice  for  their  refrigerators,  for  which 
purpose  it  is  admirably  fitted,  if  the  berg  has  not  been 
honeycombed  by  prolonged  sea  erosion,  as  it  consists  of  the 
purest  fresh  water.  If  a  gale  is  raging,  an  ice-field  will 
form  an  excellent  lee  in  which  to  ride  safely,  as  the  field 
will  break  up  the  force  of  the  sea  like  a  breakwater.  But 
the  navigator  must  not  dare  to  approach  too  closely  even 
to  this  shelter,  because  the  edge,  if  it  should  strike  the 
ship,  invariably  will  crush  in  its  sides  like  an  egg-shell, 
no  matter  how  strongly  the  boat  may  be  built.  The 
bergs  are  propelled  in  their  southward  journey  almost 
entirely  by  the  current,  and  often  they  will  force  their  way 
through  immense  fields  of  heavy  ice.  Vessels  may  take 
advantage  of  this  factor.     A  captain  often  will  attach  his 


I70    STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST  OF  THE   WORLD 

boat  to  the  drifting  berg  with  a  substantial  ice  anchor  and 
a  strong  tow-line.  In  this  way  he  may  be  towed  through 
the  obstruction  in  safety,  whereas  otherwise  he  would  be 
doomed  possibly  to  a  long  spell  of  inactivity,  if  not  help- 
lessness. As  the  berg  advances  through  the  field  open 
water  is  left  to  leeward,  while  the  loose  ice  floats  by  on 
either  hand,  so  the  boat  being  towed  is  perfectly  safe. 
The  sealing  and  whaling  vessels  often  land  on  the  largest 
monsters  to  quarry  the  ice,  in  the  same  manner  as  stone, 
to  obtain  fresh  water. 

The  berg,  though  such  a  fearful  menace  to  navigation, 
fulfils  its  sphere  of  utility.  It  is  responsible  for  the  prolific 
fisheries  on  the  Grand  Banks.  When  the  ice  breaks  away 
from  the  Arctic  glacier,  the  underwater  parts  are  charged 
heavily  with  detritus — rock,  sand,  gravel  and  other  rubbish 
— which  has  been  collected  as  the  frozen  river  moved 
slowly  seawards  from  the  interior  of  Greenland.  As  the 
majority  of  these  masses  of  ice  disappear  off  the  great 
submerged  plateau  known  as  the  Grand  Banks,  the  greater 
proportion  of  this  inorganic  material  is  deposited  at  this 
spot,  to  build  up  the  breeding  grounds  for  the  cod,  herring 
and  other  edible  fish.  Thus,  while  the  bergs,  as  it  were, 
seek  to  destroy  in  one  direction,  they  build  up  in  another, 
and  have  been  responsible  for  the  foundation  of  one  of  the 
richest  industries  in  the  northern  hemisphere,  as  well  as 
providing  a  livelihood  for  thousands  of  "Captains  Courage- 
ous "  who  brave  perils  untold  to  reap  the  rich  harvest  of 
these  waters. 

While  the  ice  on  the  open  sea  is  a  serious  menace,  it 
may  be  compassed  by  taking  a  circuitous  route,  as  the 
ocean  is  broad.  On  inland  seas  and  in  harbours,  however, 
a  different  state  of  things  exists.  Take  the  Baltic  Sea,  for 
instance.  The  water  freezes  up,  and  a  thick  glassy  armour 
is  produced.  This  becomes  broken  up,  to  drift  hither  and 
thither  to  form  hummocks  and  packs  which  render  the 
seaway  impassable.  The  eminent  Russian  naval  engineer, 
Admiral  Makaroff,  determined  to  reduce  this  evil  as  far  as 
practicable,   and   he   commissioned   the   construction   of   a 


r.     te 


X      c:  — 


J 


riioto  iiy  /itiiiiiss.'i')!  of  "  Synn  ami  Sliippiiii;  "] 

AX    rXC'.AINI.V    DKCK    LOAD 

The  P'llicia,  in  Ma.is  liarhour,  witli  a  li.st  of  27  degrees.      Heavy  deck-lnacHng  in 
tinibei-carryinu;  vessels  is  a  freqvient  cause  of  disaster. 


WllAl     WI.MKR    MKANS    ON     I  1 1 K    NORTH    ATLANTIC- 
'J'he  l)oat  deck  of  a  liner  encased  in  ice.      'I'liis  \v;is  a  s\ipreine  lest  for  tlie  Weliii  I'.oal  I  ).-ivit. 


THE    PERIL    OF    THE    ICE  171 

powerful  vessel  for  smashing  up  the  ice.  This  strange 
craft  was  built  on  the  Tyne,  and  was  fitted  with  both  stern 
and  bow  screws,  of  massive  design,  so  that  she  is  able  to 
plough  her  way  through  twenty  feet  or  more  of  the  packed 
mass,  to  enable  steamers  to  follow  an  open  channel  to  the 
sea.  Subsequently  this  vessel  was  altered,  as  her  bow 
design  was  not  entirely  satisfactory,  and  since  then  she  has 
performed  marvellous  work.  When  the  ice  becomes  too 
thick  and  dense  for  her  to  cut  through  it  directly,  the 
heavy  bow  is  formed  to  ride  upwards  on  to  the  ice  surface, 
and  the  layer  becomes  broken  up  through  the  sheer  super- 
imposed weight  of  the  vessel  and  the  propelling  effort 
exerted.  Since  the  Ermack  was  designed  and  proved  her 
utility,  several  other  vessels  for  similar  work  have  been 
built  for  service  in  the  various  ice-bound  bays  and  harbours 
of  the  world.  On  Lake  Baikal,  where  a  steam  ferry  service 
is  maintained  between  the  interrupted  arms  of  the  trans- 
Siberian  Railway  and  a  short  cut  is  offered  across  the 
breadth  of  the  lake,  the  powerful  vessels  have  an  ice- 
crushing  bow  and  screw,  whereby  they  are  able  to  cleave 
a  way.  In  Canada  a  combined  survey  ship,  yacht  and  ice- 
breaker was  constructed  in  this  country  for  similar  work, 
while  the  ice-bound  waters  of  the  Scandinavian  Peninsula 
have  several  of  these  craft  in  operation. 

During  the  winter  season  navigation  upon  the  American 
Great  Lakes  is  suspended  entirely,  these  inland  sheets  of 
water  being  frozen  over.  In  fact,  the  shores  of  Lake 
Superior  have  been  described  as  the  coldest  spot  upon  the 
North  American  continent.  When  the  weather  breaks  in 
the  spring  a  remarkable  sight  is  presented.  The  glassy 
armour  covering  the  lake  is  broken  up  into  all  manner  of 
shapes  and  sizes,  and  the  fragments  are  caught  up  by  the 
currents  and  borne  away,  to  be  piled  up  in  tangled  heaps 
upon  the  shores  or  carried  away  southwards  by  the  rivers. 
Clear  water  instead  of  ice  in  the  narrow  neck  of  water  known 
as  the  River  St.  Clair,  joining  Lakes  St.  Clair  and  Superior, 
is  regarded  generally  as  announcing  the  resumption  of 
navigation.    Then  the  mariners  associated  with  the  bustle 


172     STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST  OF  THE   WORLD 

of  water-traffic  maintained  upon  these  inland  seas  see  to 
their  boats,  since  the  instant  the  ice  breaks  up,  the  vessels 
rush  for  the  ports  with  joyful  impetuosity,  after  the  forced 
lay-up  extending  over  five  or  six  months. 

A  few  years  ago  the  first  vessels  out  had  an  exciting 
experience.  The  steamer  Pentland  made  her  way  north- 
ward through  the  St.  Clair  River,  and  emerged  upon  the 
broad  waters  of  Lake  Huron.  Then  she  struck  a  solid 
pack  of  ice,  estimated  at  fifteen  miles  in  width,  and  reach- 
ing to  the  bed  of  the  waterway — a  depth  of  about  thirty- 
five  feet.  A  number  of  other  vessels  which  had  been  lured 
out  of  dock  by  the  early  thaw  ventured  southwards  too, 
and  were  caught  likewise,  so  the  unusual  sight  of  fifteen 
vessels  being  held  in  the  ice  was  presented.  It  was  a 
precarious  position  for  the  ships,  however.  The  ice  was 
just  as  likely  to  close  around  them  as  it  does  in  the  Polar 
seas,  and  there  was  the  danger,  as  they  were  not  built  to 
withstand  such  rough  treatment,  that  their  hulls  would  be 
cracked  like  walnuts.  For  several  days  the  unhappy  situa- 
tion prevailed ;  the  masters  and  crews  had  to  maintain 
unceasing  vigilance  to  watch  the  slightest  movements  of 
the  ice,  so  as  to  secure  an  escape  if  anything  happened. 
At  the  end  of  about  a  fortnight  the  ice  cleared  a  trifle, 
permitting  the  ships  to  get  through,  after  an  imprisonment 
of  fifteen  days.  Then  the  wedges  of  ice  came  together 
once  more,  and  the  jam  remained  as  solid  as  a  masonry 
wall  for  another  week. 

The  barrier  was  caused  by  the  winds  and  currents.  As 
retiring  King  Winter  released  his  grip  upon  the  northern 
lakes  under  the  approach  of  the  spring  sun,  the  ice  split  up, 
and  the  blocks  were  driven  down-stream.  The  St.  Clair 
River  is  like  the  neck  of  a  bottle,  and  when  the  masses  of 
ice  were  driven  into  this  narrow  fairway  they  jostled  and 
rode  over  one  another,  unable  to  edge  through,  until  a  solid 
wall  was  presented  from  the  river-bed  to  several  feet  above 
the  normal  level  of  the  waterway.  It  was  a  picturesque 
spectacle;  the  river  resembled  an  Arctic  sea,  with  the  hum- 
mocks, of  fantastic  shapes  and  unwieldy  sizes,  piled  up  in 
a  heterogeneous  mass,  while  the  noise,  as  the  pieces  ground 


THE    PERIL    OF    THE    ICE  173 

together  and  became  crushed  to  smaller  fragments,  was 
deafening  at  times.  The  whole  of  the  navigation  in  these 
waters  was  brought  to  a  standstill.  Boats  had  put  out  from 
the  northern  ports,  and  had  hurried  southwards  with  their 
heavy  cargoes  of  ore  from  Duluth,  wheat  from  Port  Arthur 
and  Fort  William,  and  mixed  freight  from  the  ports  along 
the  shores  of  Lake  Michigan,  to  be  arrested,  while  the 
extensive  docks  of  Detroit  and  other  southern  ports  had 
been  emptied  of  vessels  anxious  to  get  northward.  Both 
ends  of  the  St.  Clair  River  were  filled  with  queues  of  crafts 
of  all  descriptions  waiting  to  proceed  northwards  and 
southwards  respectively.  One  boat,  more  venturesome 
than  the  rest,  drove  its  way  forward  through  the  softer  ice, 
and  then,  exhausted,  came  to  a  dead  stop.  She  had  driven 
her  nose  into  the  place  where  the  ice  was  jammed  into  a 
solid  block.  She  could  not  even  back  out  of  her  untenable 
position,  as  the  ice  had  closed  behind  her.  Fortunately, 
a  ferry-boat  which  is  built  for  ice-breaking  purposes  came 
up  and  obligingly  smashed  up  the  ice  sufficiently  to  enable 
the  imprisoned  freighter  to  retreat  slowly. 

For  tw'enty-two  days  the  extraordinary  situation  pre- 
vailed. When  finally  the  jam  gave  way,  a  remarkable 
sight  was  afforded  at  the  lower  end  of  the  river.  The 
water  and  ice  poured  out  of  the  bottle  mouth  at  the  rate 
of  ten  miles  an  hour,  the  ice  being  piled  up  to  a  height 
of  seven  feet  or  more  above  the  level  of  the  lake  in  the 
mad  rush.  Immediately  one  intrepid  master  who  had  been 
held  up  for  three  weeks  attempted  to  drive  his  way  forward. 
Crowding  on  every  ounce  of  steam,  and  wdth  the  engines 
working  at  "full  speed  ahead,"  he  crept  into  the  narrow^ 
strait.  But  although  his  engines  were  powerful,  the  current 
and  escaping  ice  were  stronger  still,  and  the  ship  was 
pushed  back  into  the  lake  below.  Time  after  time  the  ship 
was  bucked  into  the  ice  without  success.  Then  the  navi- 
gator reluctantly  concluded  that  he  was  wasting  great 
effort  to  no  purpose,  so  drew-  back  to  permit  the  ice  to  dis- 
perse, and  until  the  waterway  reverted  to  its  normal  charac- 
ter. Ice-jams  on  these  inland  seas  are  of  rare  occurrence, 
but  they  bring  about  a  complete  disorganisation  of  traffic. 


CHAPTER    XIII 

DANGERS    OF  THE    DEEP 

Although  ice  undoubtedly  constitutes  a  formidable 
menace  to  navigation,  the  seas  bristle  with  many  other 
dangers  of  a  peculiar  character.  The  majority  of  these 
perils  may  be  avoided  by  skilful  seamanship — the  balance 
is  well-nigh,  if  not  quite,  beyond  the  wit  of  man  to  circum- 
vent. The  situation  on  the  ocean  is  unique.  If  the  cap- 
tain betrays  human  frailty  by  committing  an  error  which 
precipitates  a  disaster,  the  whole  world  sits  in  judgment 
upon  him,  and  more  often  than  not  in  prejudice.  A  holo- 
caust on  shore  is  merely  a  nine  days'  wonder,  no  matter 
how  terrible  it  may  be;  a  wreck  on  the  high  seas  is  kept 
before  the  public  eye  for  weeks  and  months,  from  a  succes- 
sion of  protracted  investigations  and  inquiries,  official  and 
otherwise,  although  the  death-roll  arising  from  the  marine 
catastrophe  may  be  only  one-tenth  of  that  associated  with 
the  dry-land  disaster. 

The  navigator's  greatest  enemy  is  fog.  It  disorganises 
movement  upon  the  water  more  completely  than  it  inter- 
feres with  traffic  on  terra-jirrna.  The  ship  and  sea  are 
enveloped  in  a  cloak  of  dense,  impenetrable  mist,  which 
smothers  sound  and  vision.  It  conceals  unknown  obstacles, 
to  reveal  them  when  it  is  too  late.  The  captain  has  to 
grope  his  way  forward  cautiously  and  slowly,  like  a  blind 
man  feeling  his  path  across  the  street,  with  eyes  wide  open 
to  catch  the  slightest  shadow  in  the  pall,  and  with  ears 
alert  to  distinguish  the  faintest  sound  differing  from  the 
noise  produced  by  the  ship  herself.  The  guiding  force  on 
the  modern  liner  is  placed  at  a  heavy  disadvantage  as 
compared  with  the  mail-steamer  of  half  a  century  ago. 
The  navigating  bridge  is  perched  so  high^ — from  35  to  80 
feet,  according  to  the  size  of  the  ship— that  it  is  impossible 

174 


DANGERS    OF   THE    DEEP  175 

to  see  the  water  below.  Any  dangers  lurking  there  unseen, 
and  which  escape  detection  by  the  look-out,  are  able  to 
wreak  their  devastating  effects  without  let  or  hindrance. 

Probably  fog  is  responsible  for  ninety  per  cent,  of  the 
calamities  at  sea.  The  ponderous  ship  must  be  kept 
moving  at  a  speed  which,  in  the  case  of  a  smaller  craft, 
might  be  considered  high  under  such  conditions,  in  order 
to  maintain  control,  so  that  she  may  answer  her  helm 
readily,  as  well  as  to  off-set  the  drift  of  the  ocean  currents. 
If  the  engines  be  stopped  the  bulky  mass  is  a  more  serious 
menace  to  herself  and  passing  craft  than  if  she  were 
moving,  since  some  40,000  tons,  drifting  along  idly  at  even 
four  or  five  miles  an  hour  on  the  bosom  of  a  current,  strikes 
an  object  with  considerable  force.  On  the  other  hand,  if 
she  be  moving  forward,  say  at  ten  miles  an  hour,  then,  by 
keeping  her  course,  she  stands  a  greater  chance  of  swinging 
clear  of  a  sudden  danger,  as  she  will  be  able  to  respond 
instantly  to  her  helm. 

Unfortunately,  when  a  collision  does  occur  under  these 
conditions,  it  is  not  always  the  smaller  vessel  which  suffers 
the  most  severely.  A  little  craft  of  a  few  hundred  tons  is 
quite  capable  of  stabbing  the  larger  boat  a  fatal  blow. 
This  was  borne  out  by  the  wreck  of  La  Bourgogne.  This 
French  liner,  of  7,395  tons,  was  driving  through  a  dense 
fog  off  Nova  Scotia  at  high  speed,  when  she  fouled  the 
Cromartyshire,  a  small  wind-jammer  of  1,460  tons.  The 
impact  was  terrific;  both  vessels  staggered.  The  sailing- 
vessel  had  her  bows  cut  off  as  if  with  a  knife,  the  plates 
being  twisted  and  doubled  in  the  most  fantastic  manner, 
testifying  to  the  force  of  the  blow.  Her  foremast  and 
main-topgallant  mast  were  carried  away,  and  came  crash- 
ing to  the  deck  in  a  hopeless  tangle.  She  lay  crippled  on 
the  water,  and  the  crew  instantly  made  preparations  to 
take  to  the  boats,  as  the  master  confidently  expected  his 
craft  to  sink.  But  the  collision  bulkheads  had  been 
strongly  fashioned  by  her  builders  on  the  Clyde;  they 
kept  the  water  back,  and  the  rest  of  the  hull  was  as  tight 
as  a  drum.     Satisfied,  the  skipper  immediately  put  about, 


176    STEAMSHIP  CONQUEST  OF  THE   WORLD 

with  the  intention  of  making  a  run  for  Halifax,  the  nearest 
port. 

In  the  meantime  the  liner,  which  up  to  this  moment  had 
escaped  identification,  had  sheered  off  into  the  fog  and  had 
eased  up.  Four  sharp  blasts  rang  out  from  her  syren.  The 
wind-jammer's  captain  thought  that  help  was  going  to  be 
offered  to  him,  but,  to  his  intense  surprise,  the  next  minute 
he  found  the  sea  alive  with  people.  The  liner  had  gone 
down  suddenly,  dragging  some  500  souls  with  her.  The 
captain  of  the  Croviartyshire  scarcely  could  believe  that  his 
little  craft  had  inflicted  such  a  severe  wound  in  the  liner's 
hull  as  to  send  her  to  the  bottom,  but  afterwards  it  was 
discovered  that  the  wind-jammer  had  rammed  her  blow 
home  only  too  well.  She  caught  the  liner  just  abaft  the 
bridge,  tearing  a  gaping  hole,  through  which  the  water 
rushed  fiendishly,  breaking  down  bulkheads  and  sweeping 
everything  away  in  its  mad  rush.  The  engine-rooms  and 
stokeholds  were  flooded  in  a  few  seconds;  before  those  on 
board  realised  what  had  happened,  La  Bourgogne  had 
settled  down,  preparatory  to  her  final  plunge.  The 
Cromartyshire  picked  up  200  survivors,  which  a  few  hours 
later  were  transferred  to  the  Allan  liner  Grecian,  she  her- 
self was  taken  in  tow,  and  the  two  vessels  made  their  way 
slowly  to  Halifax,  which  was  reached  safely. 

This  wreck,  it  may  be  mentioned,  ranks  as  one  of  the 
most  melancholy  associated  with  the  North  Atlantic,  owing 
to  the  fearful  and  desperate  fights  for  life  which  ensued 
upon  the  French  liner  in  the  rush  for  the  boats.  All  dis- 
cipline and  self-control  were  lost,  with  the  result  that  only 
61  passengers  out  of  a  total  of  597  were  saved,  including 
one  solitary  woman,  while  104  out  of  223  constituting  the 
crew  were  rescued.  In  this  instance  the  liner  was  to  blame 
entirely.  Not  only  was  she  travelling  at  excessive  speed, 
but  she  was  no  less  than  160  miles  off  her  course.  This 
was  the  penalty  for  departing  from  the  scheduled  lanes  of 
the  sea,  as  described  in  the  preceding  chapter.  Had  she 
been  on  the  right  road  she  would  not  have  encountered  any 
sailing-vessels. 


DANGERS    OF    THE    DEEP  177 

The  perils  of  fog  assume  their  worst  manifestation  when 
approaching  shore.  Perhaps  the  navigator  has  been 
unable  to  catch  a  glimpse  of  the  sun  for  days,  in  order 
to  pick  up  his  bearings,  but  has  been  compelled  to  rely 
upon  "dead  reckoning."  In  making  this  calculation  the 
mileage  indicated  upon  the  patent  log — the  liner's  speedo- 
meter— for  the  previous  twelve  or  twenty-four  hours,  is 
compared  with  the  number  of  revolutions  which  have  been 
made  by  the  screws  during  the  selfsame  period.  The 
engineer  knows  how  far  forward  his  vessel  moves  with  each 
revolution  of  the  propellers,  and  then,  by  making  certain 
allowances  for  drift  by  currents,  and  so  on,  the  position 
of  the  ship  may  be  determined  fairly  accurately.  It  is 
merely  a  calculation,  however,  and  is  not  implicitly 
reliable,  so  that  great  risks  are  incurred  when  approaching 
a  dangerous  coast.  The  huge  American-built  liner 
Dakota,  the  largest  ship  built  in  the  United  States,  of 
28,000  tons,  piled-up  on  the  rocks  off  the  Japanese  coast ;  an 
Atlantic  Transport  freighter  fouled  the  wicked  rocks  lying 
off  the  Scillies;  and  the  St.  Paul  missed  the  entrance  to 
New  York  harbour  and  became  stranded  on  the  sandy 
coast,  merely  because  the  respective  captains  lost  their 
way  in  the  fog. 

Fortunately,  in  these  days  of  wireless  telegraphy  a  ship 
is  spared  this  menace  to  a  very  noticeable  degree.  It  is 
no  unusual  circumstance  for  a  liner  to  enter  the  British 
Channel  without  sighting  the  Bishop's  Rock  lighthouse, 
to  meet  the  tender  at  Plymouth,  and  to  put  off  again 
without  having  seen  land  at  all.  The  general  procedure  is 
for  the  liner's  wireless  operator  to  communicate  with  the 
Lizard  station,  asking  them  if  they  can  hear  the  liner's 
distinctive  syren  blasts,  and  the  character  of  the  signal, 
such  as  two  long  and  one  short,  three  long,  or  some  other 
variation.  The  Lizard  man  listens  for  the  special  signals, 
and  will  hear  them  in  all  probability.  To  make  assurance 
doubly  sure  he  asks  the  ship  to  repeat  them.  The  Lizard 
man  will  detect  their  droning  through  the  fog,  possibly 
faintly,  or  maybe  somewhat  loudly,  because  the  aberration 

N 


178    STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST  OF   THE   WORLD 

of  sound  on  the  water  is  extraordinary.  He  then  com- 
municates to  the  vessel  the  direction  from  which  the  signals 
have  come  to  him,  the  captain  sets  his  course  accordingly, 
and  maintains  constant  communication,  with  variations  of 
his  blast  signals;  the  wireless  operator  at  the  Lizard  guid- 
ing him  at  frequent  intervals  by  relating  the  varying 
directions  from  which  the  blasts  come  to  him  on  shore ; 
neither  sees  the  other,  they  speak  through  the  white 
blanket. 

Wind  and  wave  exact  their  respective  tolls,  but  the 
staunchly-built  liner  of  to-day  is  a  match  for  the  heaviest 
.seas,  so  that  any  damage  inflicted  is  confined  rather  to  the 
superstructure.  Even  on  the  largest  boats,  however,  the 
seas,  when  thoroughly  roused,  are  given  the  respect  they 
demand.  The  captain,  when  the  odds  are  against  him, 
slows  his  vessel  down,  and  permits  the  elements  to  exhaust 
themselves  harmlessly.  At  times  the  upper  decks  get 
knocked  about  very  badlv — boats  are  stove  in,  port  lights 
are  smashed,  ventilators  and  deck-houses  scattered,  and  the 
taffrail  twisted  and  bent  by  the  fury  of  the  elements.  Still, 
it  is  very  seldom  that  the  seas  are  able  to  claim  a  victim  ; 
but  when  they  do  it  is  a  complete  conquest,  bringing  about 
either  the  sinking  of  the  craft,  or  its  conversion  into  a 
derelict,  and  thereby  strewing  the  ocean  lanes  with  another 
deadly  peril,  which  is  described  in  another  chapter.  The 
British  Prince  was  as  solidly  built  a  vessel  as  ever  left  a 
British  yard,  but  she  was  caught  by  one  of  the  wicked  gales 
in  1904  while  off  Sable  Island.  The  first  big  sea  that  got 
home  gave  her  a  staggering,  knock-out  blow.  Before  she 
could  recover,  another  sea  smashed  into  her  and  completed 
her  helplessness.  Exposed  to  the  full  fury  of  the  storm, 
the  trip-hammer  blows  got  home  one  after  the  other,  and 
the  hull  could  not  withstand  the  pummelling.  The  plates 
opened  up,  the  water  rushed  in,  and  within  a  very  short 
time  the  boat  formed  another  contribution  to  Davy  Jones's 
locker,  taking  with  her  the  greater  part  of  her  crew. 

When  the  Adelaide  Steamship  Company's  vessel  Bul- 
warra  entered  the  West  Australian  port  of  Fremantle,  early 


DANGERS    OF    THE    DEEP  179 

in  191 2,  she  aroused  considerable  curiosity.  Rising  from 
her  deck  was  a  strange-looking  structure,  which,  as  she 
drew  alongside  the  quay,  resolved  itself  into  a  tower  of 
corrugated  iron.  When  the  boat  had  made  fast,  another 
of  those  occasional  sensational  stories  of  the  sea  was 
narrated.  The  Bulwarra  had  been  engaged  in  a  deadly 
grapple  with  the  elements,  and  although  she  had  emerged 
triumphant,  she  had  received  plenty  of  scars.  She  had  put 
out  from  Port  Hedland  on  the  northern  coast  with  a  cargo 
of  cattle.  Scarcely  had  she  got  out  to  sea  when  she  ran 
into  a  cyclone.  The  wind,  whistling  along  at  a  speed 
varying  between  70  and  100  miles  an  hour,  caught  hold 
of  the  funnel,  unseated  it,  and  brought  it  to  deck  with  a 
terrific  crash,  where  it  smashed  up  everything  until  finally 
it  came  to  rest.  The  ship  was  stricken  helpless,  since  to 
attempt  to  steam,  was  to  smother  the  decks  with  dense 
clouds  of  smoke,  while  there  was  every  chance  that  a  hungry 
comber  might  curl  aboard  and  empty  itself  dow'n  the  yawn- 
ing hole  where  the  funnel  had  stood,  to  precipitate  con- 
sternation and  injury  in  the  stokeholds.  Indeed,  one  such 
sea  did  get  up  to  expend  its  rage  upon  the  bridge,  34  feet 
above  the  water,  spreading  destruction  on  all  sides.  The 
anchor  was  let  go  and  the  ship  steadied,  while  oil  was 
poured  out  by  the  bucket  to  keep  the  waves  down.  When 
the  Buhvarra  emerged  from  the  storm  she  presented  a  sorry 
sight,  but  the  crew  got  to  work  without  delay.  The  dis- 
membered funnel  was  tumbled  overboard,  together  with 
the  carcasses  of  the  cattle  which  had  succumbed  from  terror 
and  injury.  Several  sheets  of  corrugated  iron  were 
brought  up  from  the  holds,  together  with  some  heavy 
pieces  of  timber,  and  with  these  a  jury-funnel  was  built  at 
the  expense  of  two  days'  incessant  labour.  The  extempor- 
ised structure  enabled  the  engines  to  be  set  going  once 
more,  and  the  ship  crawled  into  Fremantle  little  the 
worse  for  her  hard  gruelling,  as  on  examination  the  hull 
proved  to  be  as  tight  as  a  drum. 

In    view    of    experiences    of    this    nature,    the    question 
naturally  arises,  What  speeds  do  winds  attain,  and  what 

N  2 


i8o    STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST  OF   THE   WORLD 

are  the  heights  of  ocean  waves?  So  far  as  the  wind  is 
concerned,  its  velocity  appears  to  be  illimitable.  When 
blowing  at  a  mile  an  hour,  the  breath  is  scarcely  per- 
ceptible, but  when  multiplied  twenty-five-fold  it  produces 
a  brisk  gale.  Double  this  velocity  and  a  storm  is  obtained, 
while  at  speeds  of  80  to  100  miles  an  hour  the  wind  creates 
a  hurricane.  In  regard  to  the  waves,  there  is  considerable 
discrepancy,  with  a  tendency  to  exaggeration.  When  a 
vessel  is  in  the  trough  of  the  sea,  the  advancing  wall  of 
water  does  assume  a  tremendous  height,  but  the  de- 
scription "mountainous  seas"  as  commonly  employed,  is 
illusory.  From  the  collected  estimates  and  scientific 
measurements  that  have  been  made,  the  average  height  of 
the  waves  during  a  gale  in  mid-ocean  is  about  20  feet. 
But  associated  with  these  regularly  running  ridges  of 
water  are  larger  and  higher  walls  or  waves,  which  occur  at 
fairly  frequent  intervals,  and  these  will  run  to  a  height  of 
40  feet  in  the  North  Atlantic.  When,  therefore,  a  mariner 
mentions  40-feet  or  50-feet  waves  he  does  not  intend  to 
convey  the  impression  that  all  the  waves  were  of  this 
height,  but  refers  to  the  intermittent  ridges  of  water  which 
bore  down  upon  his  ship.  In  latitudes  where  typhoons 
are  experienced,  the  maximum  waves  certainly  exceed  this 
limit,  while  the  tidal  wave,  produced  by  abnormal  con- 
ditions—as, for  instance,  an  earthquake — may  reach  a 
height  of  75  feet. 

In  the  days  of  the  single-screw  the  worst  injury  that 
could  be  inflicted  upon  the  vessel  was  the  loss  of  its  pro- 
peller. Often  this  seals  its  fate,  because  the  ship,  de- 
prived of  its  driving  effort,  becomes  the  sport  of  the 
elements.  Out  of  control,  drifting  aimlessly,  the  plight  of 
a  craft  so  stricken  in  a  heavy  gale  is  pitiable,  as  she  is 
continually  swept  from  end  to  end  by  the  merciless 
seas.  Probably  the  most  sensational  journey  under  these 
extreme  conditions  was  that  of  the  Cunard  steamship 
Pavonia,  of  5,587  tons  and  4000  indicated  horse-power, 
running  in  the  Boston  service.  A  heavy  gale  sprung  up 
and  the  liner  dropped  her  propeller.     She  was  picked  up 


WIIKN    GKKVIKH  X1)S    COI.LIDK    AT    SKA 

Tlie  Florida,  after  she  had  rammed  and  sunk  the  KcpiihUquc  in  the  Xortli  Atlantic.     Tlie  force 
of  the  impact  was  so  great  that  30  feet  of  the  Hner's  bow  were  crumpled  into  a  space  of  5  feet. 


DANGERS    OF    THE    DEEP  i8i 

by  the  contrary  currents  and  winds  to  be  tossed  from  side 
to  side  like  a  log,  and  in  a  short  time  was  carried  beyond 
the  great  steamship  lanes  extending  from  the  Old  to  the 
New  World.  Day  after  day  passed  and  no  tidings  what- 
ever were  received  from  passing  vessels,  although  one  and 
all  were  warned  to  keep  a  sharp  look-out  for  the  missing 
boat. 

Had  the  Pavonia  contributed  another  mystery  to  the 
broad  Atlantic  ?  Had  she  fouled  a  derelict,  smashed  into 
an  iceberg,  or  foundered  through  collision  with  another 
craft?  In  herself  she  was  as  seaworthy  as  any  liner  fre- 
quenting these  seas,  so  it  was  generally  believed  that  she 
had  met  with  an  untoward  accident  and  had  gone  to  her 
last  account  with  every  soul  on  board.  Just  when  the  last 
flickering  rays  of  hope  were  being  extinguished,  the  tidings 
were  flashed  home  that  she  had  been  discovered,  tumbling 
among  the  waves  off"  the  Azores.  She  was  completely  un- 
manageable, and  bore  sad  evidences  of  her  frightful  experi- 
ences. Her  journey  had  been  most  thrilling.  The  instant 
the  propeller  was  dropped  she  floundered  like  a  lame  duck, 
climbing  this  ridge,  and  rolling  over  that  wall,  of  water. 
This  unusual  treatment  had  the  expected  result.  The 
massive  boilers,  swayed  violently  to  and  fro,  moved  on 
their  seatings,  and  gave  every  indication  of  breaking  loose. 
This  was  a  calamity  too  fearful  to  be  contemplated.  Six 
unwieldy,  heavy  cylindrical  boilers,  rolling  from  side  to 
side  in  the  stokehold,  would  have  finished  the  career  of  the 
Pavonia  in  a  few  minutes,  as  they  would  have  battered 
through  her  sides.  In  frantic  haste  the  weight  of  the 
masses  was  reduced  so  as  to  minimise  the  strain  upon  their 
seatings.  The  steam  was  suffered  to  escape,  the  fires  were 
drawn,  and  the  water  was  run  off,  the  firemen  displaying 
heroic  fortitude  in  the  scalding  steam  and  water.  But  they 
saved  the  ship.  Emptied  of  their  contents,  there  was  not 
so  much  fear  of  the  ungainly  boilers  becoming  detached. 

The  rescue  of  this  unfortunate  liner  was  as  thrilling  as 
her  accident  and  drift.  The  Wolviston,  a  small  steamer 
of  2,565  tons  register,  sighted  her  about  noon  one  day  early 


i82     STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST  OF  THE   WORLD 

in  February,  and  answered  her  signals  of  distress.  A 
heavy  sea  was  running,  but  the  Wolviston  crept  within 
hailing  distance,  and  saw-  the  unhappy  passengers  crowd- 
ing the  Uner's  decks  imploring  help.  Captain  Snowden,  oi 
the  tramp,  at  once  decided  to  take  the  disabled  craft  in 
tow,  but  this  proved  no  easy  matter,  as  she  was  rolling 
dangerously  in  the  trough  of  the  sea.  An  officer  managed 
to  put  off  from  the  helpless  liner,  and  he  was  asked  if  her 
captain  would  abandon  his  ship,  after  the  passengers  and 
crew  had  been  transferred.  The  master  of  the  liner  refused 
point-blank,  until  the  Pavonia  was  doomed.  Accordingly, 
a  heavy  towing-rope  was  passed  from  one  boat  to  the  other, 
and  the  tedious  journey  homewards  was  commenced. 
They  had  scarcely  got  under  way  when  the  rope  snapped 
like  a  thread,  and,  the  gale  increasing,  it  was  found  impos- 
sible to  pass  another  line.  Captain  Snowden,  for  his  ow-n 
safety,  had  to  resort  to  extremely  skilful  navigation  to 
prevent  the  seas  sweeping  his  craft  from  end  to  end.  Oil 
had  to  be  distributed  freely  on  the  water  whenever  he 
wanted  to  turn  his  ship,  as  when  the  first  towing  attempt 
failed,  he  decided  to  stand  by  the  helpless  craft  until 
another  favourable  opportunity  occurred  to  resume  the 
operation.  With  the  advance  of  night,  however,  the  gale 
increased  in  fury,  and  it  was  imperative  to  keep  the 
Wolviston' s  head  to  the  sea.  The  result  was  that  the 
Pavonia  drifted  away,  and  w-hen  morning  broke  she  was 
nowhere  to  be  seen.  The  master  of  the  Wolviston  rode  the 
gale,  and  then  shaped  a  course  w'hich  he  concluded  would 
bring  him  up  with  the  helpless  liner  once  more.  For  five 
hours  he  ran  in  this  direction,  covering  45  miles,  and  then 
sighted  a  bright  light  directly  ahead.  Captain  Snowden 
immediately  sent  up  all  kinds  of  signal-rockets,  blue  lights 
— in  fact,  everything  that  could  be  thought  of.  The  vessel 
in  distress  responded,  and  to  the  delight  of  the  Wolviston 
it  proved  to  be  the  Pavonia.  The  two  kept  companv  that 
night,  and  in  the  morning  another  towing-rope  was 
passed  from  ship  to  ship  in  another  effort  to  reach  safety. 
No   further   untoward    incident    happened,   and    after   five 


DANGERS    OF    THE    DEEP  183 

days'  steaming,  at  an  average  daily  speed  of  135  miles, 
St.  Michael's  was  sighted,  and  the  Pavonia  was  berthed 
safely,  the  passengers  thankful  for  their  deliverance  from 
the  deep,  but  otherwise  little  the  worse  for  their  remarkable 
adventure. 

With  the  introduction  of  the  twin-screw  vessel  the  possi- 
bility of  such  an  accident  was  rendered  more  remote,  but 
in  October  1907  the  German  greyhound  Kaiser  Wilhebn 
der  Grosse  had  an  unlucky  experience.  She  was  home- 
ward bound,  and  driving  her  way  through  a  typical 
October  gale,  into  which  she  ran  when  a  few  hundred  miles 
out  of  New  York.  Suddenly  she  gave  a  shiver,  slewed, 
and  then  shot  forward.  The  movement  of  the  wheel  be- 
trayed that  something  had  gone  :  it  was  the  rudder.  The 
nearest  port  was  Halifax,  about  a  day's  steaming  distant, 
and  the  captain's  first  thought  was  to  make  for  that 
harbour.  A  little  reflection  convinced  him,  however,  that 
he  could  reach  Europe  safely  by  steering  with  his  pro- 
pellers, varying  the  speed  of  one  in  relation  to  the  other 
to  keep  the  ship's  nose  in  the  desired  direction.  Two  or 
three  passing  ships  who  spoke  him  offered  assistance,  but 
it  was  declined,  as  the  liner  was  making  good  progress, 
and  four-and-a-half  days  later  the  Bishop's  Rock  light- 
house was  picked  up.  The  captain  stuck  to  the  bridge  day 
and  night  during  the  whole  journey,  never  leaving  the 
wheel  for  an  instant,  and  when  at  last  the  Channel  was 
entered,  and  he  could  take  a  short  rest,  his  feet  were  found 
to  have  swollen  so  badly  that  his  boots  had  to  be  cut  off. 

The  captain  who  has  the  misfortune  to  lose  his  rudder 
or  to  have  his  screw  incapacitated,  and  is  thus  condemned 
to  helplessness,  does  not  give  up  the  fight  without  a  stiff 
struggle.  One  single-screw  boat  was  ploughing  across  the 
Atlantic  and  lost  two  blades  of  her  propeller.  In  the 
morning  an  effort  was  made  to  repair  the  accident.  The 
fore-peak  of  the  ship  was  gradually  filled  with  water,  and 
in  this  way  she  was  caused  to  tip  so  that  her  stern  and 
screw  were  lifted  out  of  the  water.  A  plank  was  lowered 
over  riie  stern,  and  on  this  swinging  foothold  two  or  three 


i84    STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST  OF  THE   WORLD 

of  the  engineers,  with  life-lines  tied  round  their  waists,  set 
to  work  clearing  out  the  holes  in  which  the  bolts  were  set 
in  the  boss,  in  order  to  attach  new  blades  which  happened 
to  be  on  board.  It  was  an  awkward  perch  upon  which  to 
ply  tools,  while  the  tossing  of  the  ship  rendered  their  task 
more  difficult.  At  times  they  heard  a  shout  from  the  look- 
out above,  grabbed  their  life-lines  tightly,  and  held  on  for 
grim  death  as  a  wave  swept  over  them.  It  was  painfully 
slow  work,  and  the  cramped  quarters  did  not  give  the  men 
much  elbow-room,  but  the  new  blades  were  fitted  at  last. 
The  fore-peak  was  then  emptied,  the  stern  settled  into  the 
water,  the  ship  regained  her  trim,  the  furnaces  were  fired, 
and  the  steamer  resumed  her  journey  as  if  nothing  had 
happened. 

The  engineer,  when  he  finds  himself  in  a  tight  corner, 
is  a  man  of  infinite  resource,  patience  and  perseverance. 
The  single-screw^  steamer  Milton  was  on  her  way  from 
Cape  Town  to  Australia,  and  was  about  1,500  miles  out, 
when,  in  the  height  of  a  gale,  the  vessel  got  out  of  control. 
At  first  it  was  thought  that  she  had  dropped  her  propeller, 
but  examination  revealed  the  welcome  fact  that  the  screw 
was  intact.  Something  had  gone  wrong  w-ith  the  shaft, 
and  the  accident  was  somewhere  within  the  ship..  In  the 
morning  the  shaft  was  examined,  and  it  was  found  to  have 
been  fractured  in  about  as  awkward  a  place  as  could  be 
conceived — right  at  the  extreme  end  of  the  ship,  where 
only  about  three  inches  of  space  separated  the  tube  from 
the  sides  of  the  boat.  The  fore-peak  was  filled  with 
water,  and  the  after-peak  was  emptied,  in  order  to  lift 
the  stern  into  the  air,  and  thus  to  bring  the  propeller  out 
of  the  water.  A  plank  was  lowered  over  the  stern,  and 
on  this  narrow,  lurching  gangway  two  or  three  men,  with 
life-lines,  dared  the  extremely  heavy  seas  which  were  run- 
ning, lowering  a  hawser  round  the  blades  in  order  to  lift 
them  up,  and  bring  the  two  ends  of  the  broken  shaft 
together.  It  was  found  that  a  piece  of  the  propeller-shaft 
had  broken  clean  away,  and  this  had  to  be  removed.  Then 
the  two  ends  were  brought  as  close  together  as  possible 


DANGERS    OF   THE    DEEP  185 

and  held  while  longitudinal  slots  in  line  with  one  another 
were  cut  into  the  ends  of  the  two  shafts.  Six  of  these 
slots  had  to  be  cut  with  infinite  labour,  for  the  space  was 
so  small  that  only  one  man  could  work  at  a  time,  and  then 
only  intermittently.  Cutting  slots  a  foot  long,  by  some 
three  inches  wide  and  two  inches  deep,  in  the  steel  of 
which  a  propeller-shaft  is  made,  and  with  hand  tools,  is 
almost  a  hopeless  task,  but  the  men  did  it. 

The  engineer  was  equally  ingenious  in  discovering 
metal  and  fashioning  it  into  keys  to  be  sunk  into  these  slots 
to  bind  the  two  pieces  of  the  shaft  together.  He  tore 
stanchions  out  of  the  deck,  heated  them  in  the  boiler  fur- 
naces, and  forged  them ;  whatever  machining  that  was 
required  being  completed  with  a  small  lathe  carried  on 
board.  The  keys  thus  fashioned  were  driven  into  the  slots 
and  held  there  by  bolts  sunk  into  the  shaft.  Three  clamps 
were  then  improvised  from  suitable  fittings  taken  from 
other  parts  of  the  ship,  and  which  could  be  spared.  These 
were  tightened  round  the  ends  of  the  shafts  to  hold  the 
rough  joint  tight.  All  this  time  the  vessel  pitched  and 
rolled  in  a  fearful  manner  as  the  gale  raged  with  unabated 
fury,  as  if  maddened  by  the  engineer's  ingenuity  and 
perseverance.  At  the  end  of  twenty-five  days  and  nights 
of  continuous  labour,  the  engineer  had  the  satisfaction  of 
seeing  the  repair  completed,  and  the  1,184  miles  to  Port 
St.  Louis,  Mauritius,  were  covered  safely  at  a  speed  of 
4^  miles  an  hour.  For  this  remarkable  piece  of  work, 
which  saved  the  ship,  the  engineer  and  his  comrades  were 
rewarded  handsomely  by  the  underwriters,  who  thereby 
escaped  insurance  upon  a  total  loss. 

Many  of  the  dangers  incidental  to  Ocean  travelling  arise 
from  within  the  ship  herself.  Fire  is  probably  the  greatest 
peril  to  be  feared.  A  conflagration  on  shore  is  terrifying, 
but  it  is  a  thousand  times  more  so  at  sea.  The  calamity 
that  befell  the  steamship  Sardinia  off  Malta  has  not  been 
forgotten,  but,  fortunately,  such  a  disaster  is  of  rare  occur- 
rence in  passenger-vessels  on  the  high  seas,  although  it 
is  by  no  means  uncommon   in  port.     The  cargoes  often 


i86    STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST  OF   THE   WORLD 

precipitate  a  calamity  of  this  character.  The  coal  stored 
in  the  bunkers  to  feed  the  boilers,  which  may  easily  repre- 
sent 5000  or  6000  tons  in  a  modern  monster,  is  liable  to 
spontaneous  combustion,  and  small  outbreaks  from  this 
cause  are  by  no  means  uncommon.  Cotton,  wool  and  hay 
are  apt  to  burst  into  flame  from  the  same  cause.  The 
most  terrible  holocaust  on  record  arising,  it  is  thought, 
spontaneously,  was  in  connection  with  the  Great  Queens- 
land in  August  1876.  This  vessel  put  out  from  England 
for  Melbourne,  with  560  people  aboard,  and  with  a  cargo 
which,  among  other  things,  included  a  large  quantity  of 
gunpowder  !  The  vessel  never  was  seen  again,  although 
some  shattered  wreckage  w^as  picked  up  off  Cape  Finisterre. 
It  is  believed  that  she  caught  fire,  the  explosive  cargo 
became  ignited  and  blew  the  ship  to  pieces,  together  with 
her  passengers  and  crew. 

The  most  dangerous  cargoes,  however,  are  handled  by 
special  vessels,  such  as,  for  instance,  those  engaged  in  the 
transportation  of  oils.  The  Ble7igfell,  of  1,210  tons,  was 
being  towed  through  the  Downs  on  Monday,  October  17, 
1898.  She  had  a  cargo  of  naphtha,  stowed  in  barrels  in 
the  after  hold.  Suddenly  there  was  a  terrific  explosion, 
accompanied  by  a  sheet  of  flame.  The  after  part  of 
the  ship,  together  with  the  captain,  his  wife  and  child,  the 
officers,  and  the  pilot,  who  had  stepped  aboard  only  the 
previous  evening  to  take  her  into  the  Thames,  were  blown 
to  atoms.  The  vessel  drifted  on  to  the  Tongue  bank  and 
there  burned  herself  out,  13  of  the  crew  being  saved  in  the 
nick  of  time.  Vessels  laden  with  cotton  appear  to  be 
unlucky  in  respect  of  fire,  since  cases  of  spontaneous 
combustion  in  connection  with  this  cargo  are  quite  fre- 
quent. When  an  avowedly  inflammable  cargo  is  being 
carried,  extreme  precautions  are  taken  to  ensure  as  much 
safety  as  possible,  but  now  and  again  ingenious  man 
receives  a  severe  shock.  There  was  the  steamer  Snorre, 
for  instance.  She  put  out  from  Odda  in  Norway  with  a 
cargo  of  calcium  cynamide,  but  never  readied  her  destina- 
tion.    On  the  voyage  a  search  was  being  made  for  mouse- 


DANGERS    OF    THE    DEEP  187 

holes  in  the  crew's  quarters,  and  a  Hghted  match  was 
brought  near  a  hole.  Instantly  a  tongue  of  flame  shot  out, 
followed  by  an  explosion  which  shattered  the  ship,  and 
launched  eight  out  of  the  thirteen  hands  forming  the  crew 
into  eternity.  The  gas  had  been  given  off  by  the  carbide, 
had  collected  in  the  hold,  and  ignited  upon  the  first  ap- 
proach of  a  naked  light.  The  shipping  community  had 
looked  at  the  transport  of  this  chemical  product  askance 
for  some  time  past,  but,  assured  by  the  chemists  that  they 
had  secured  a  perfect  means  of  rendering  it  innocuous, 
accepted  it  as  a  perfectly  safe  cargo.  This  accident  shat- 
tered the  claims  of  the  inventor  in  a  ruthless  manner,  and 
made  underwriters  more  suspicious  than  ever. 

One  would  not  think  that  wood  pulp  is  a  dangerous 
cargo  for  a  ship  to  handle,  but  the  mariner  will  tell  you 
it  is  about  the  last  thing  he  would  care  to  have  aboard  a 
ship  while  she  is  being  knocked  about  by  rough  seas. 
A  sailing-ship  with  a  load  of  this  material  put  out  from 
Nova  Scotia  en  route  for  England.  When  about  300  miles 
out  she  was  overwhelmed  by  a  gale.  The  masts  and  rig- 
ging were  splintered,  and  the  water  poured  on  board 
continuously.  The  crew  stuck  to  the  pumps  like  heroes 
for  several  days,  in  the  endeavour  to  prevent  the  water 
reaching  the  cargo,  but  they  became  exhausted  by  the 
severity  of  the  task.  The  wood  pulp  sucked  up  the  water 
like  a  sponge,  and  in  expanding  exerted  such  enormous 
pressure  upon  the  hull  as  to  split  it  open  in  all  directions. 
Eight  of  the  crew  were  picked  up  in  a  small  boat;  the 
remainder  of  their  mates  went  to  the  bottom  with  the  ship. 

Breakdowns  of  the  machinery  often  precipitate  some 
anxious  moments  in  the  engine-room,  and  it  is  only  the 
tireless  vigilance  of  the  engineering  staff  which  has  saved 
many  a  fine  vessel  from  an  untimely  end.  The  Lucania 
was  bowling  along  at  full  speed  for  home  when,  in  the 
middle  of  the  night,  the  music  of  the  engine-room  was 
disturbed  by  a  terrific  crash.  The  engines  were  stopped 
promptly,  and  then  it  was  found  that  the  piston-rod  of  the 
port  engine  was  smashed,  and  ponderous  pieces  of  metal 


i88     STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST   OF   THE    WORLD 

were  flying  about  in  all  directions.  The  engine  was 
crippled  completely,  but  investigation  proved  that  no  harm 
had  been  inflicted  upon  the  vessel's  structure.  The  star- 
board engine  was  re-started,  and  the  liner  got  home  under 
reduced  speed  on  one  propeller. 

The  greyhound  City  of  Paris,  which  afterwards  ran  upon 
the  Manacles,  did  not  escape  so  lightly  under  a  similar 
accident.  She  was  travelling  home  at  full  speed  with  well- 
filled  cabins  when,  off  the  coast  of  Ireland  on  March  25, 
1890,  something  went  wrong  with  the  starboard  engine. 
In  a  short  time  the  engine-room  was  flooded,  and  the  port 
engine  became  disabled.  The  liner  was  now  as  helpless  as 
a  derelict,  and  at  the  mercy  of  winds  and  currents.  There 
was  only  one  possible  way  to  obtain  assistance — to  put  off 
for  it.  Accordingly,  a  lifeboat  was  launched,  with  some  of 
the  crew  to  row  to  Queenstown,  where  they  told  their  story. 
The  plight  of  the  liner  was  precarious  in  the  extreme,  so 
no  time  was  lost  in  dispatching  a  steamer  to  her  assistance. 
Fortunately  the  liner  was  picked  up  unharmed,  although 
the  passengers  had  been  exposed  to  a  fearful  peril,  rolling 
helplessly  in  the  trough  of  the  waves  for  nearly  four  days. 
The  friendly  towing-rope  was  passed  from  ship  to  ship, 
made  fast,  and  the  Paris  was  towed  into  the  Irish  port  to 
drop  her  passengers  and  mails,  about  three  days  late,  little 
the  worse  for  her  misadventure.  This  accident  brought 
home  the  fact  very  conclusively  that  even  a  twin-screw 
vessel  may  become  totally  disabled  by  a  breakdown  with 
her  engines,  though  only  under  abnormal  circumstances. 
To-day,  an  accident  like  this  would  be  trifling,  as,  thanks 
to  wireless  telegraphy,  assistance  could  be  summoned, 
and  the  crowded  state  of  the  steamship  lanes  would  ensure 
help  being  rendered  within  a  few  hours  of  the  mishap. 


CHAPTER    XIV 

CLEARING   THE   OCEAN   HIGHWAYS 

"April  25,  Lat.  38°  42',  Long.  57°  54',  passed  a  white- 
painted  spar  standing  upright  and  projecting  about  7  feet 
out  of  water,  apparently  attached  to  a  submerged  wreck. 
— Mauretania  (Br.  SS.)." 

This  terse  statement  in  the  Daily  Report  of  the  United 
States  Hydrographic  Office  means  more  than  appears 
at  first  sight.  It  conveys  the  intimation  that  the  great 
steamship  lanes  of  the  North  Atlantic  are  obstructed  by 
wreckage,  offering  a  danger  to  navigation.  Perhaps  the 
announcement  will  appear  a  dozen  times  in  the  same 
report,  having  been  sighted  by  as  many  various  vessels 
in  as  many  different  places.  But  it  warns  all  and  sundry 
— the  tramp  as  well  as  the  ocean  flyer — that  vigilance  must 
be  maintained  by  the  look-out  to  avoid  a  collision  with 
an  almost  invisible  peril,  the  extent  of  which  is  not  fully 
apparent  from  the  surface. 

The  obstacle,  such  as  a  spar  or  deck-house,  may  be 
detached  and  floating  aimlessly  to  and  fro.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  may  be  attached  to  a  vessel,  in  which  event  the 
hull  of  the  latter  is  floating  several  feet  below  the  surface, 
and  able  to  inflict  serious  damage  to  the  hull  of  the  craft 
which  ventures  to  scrape  a  passing  acquaintance. 

The  derelict  is  one  of  the  greatest  menaces  to  navigation. 
The  battered,  shapeless  hulk,  barely  protruding  above  the 
waves,  lies  in  wait  for  the  passing  vessel  and  right  in  her 
path.  She  may  escape  the  eagle  eye  and  alert  ears  of  the 
unsuspecting  approaching  ship,  particularly  if  the  weather 
be  thick.  There  is  a  sharp  blow  or  a  wild  quiver.  The 
vessel  lurches  forward ;  a  few  plates  are  dented  or  ripped, 
according  to  the  force  of  the  blow,  or  a  propeller  is  dropped. 


190    STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

These  are  the  methods  in  which  the  derelict  completes  its 
deadly  work. 

Whence  come  these  drifting  obstructions  to  other  craft  ? 
For  the  most  part  they  are  sailing-vessels,  although  now 
and  again  a  steamer  will  be  included  in  their  ranks. 
Ninety-nine  times  out  of  a  hundred  they  will  be  laden 
with  lumber,  constituting  one  of  the  most  fearful  masses 
against  which  a  ship  could  rush.  They  are  victims  of 
wind,  wave,  fire  and  icebergs.  A  vessel  puts  out  from 
port  with  a  full  cargo  and  as  tight  as  a  drum.  A  storm 
sweeps  down  upon  her,  and  she  is  soon  reduced  to  a  help- 
less, tangled  mass.  Masts  are  snapped  off  by  the  com- 
bined elements,  to  come  crashing  down  with  yards  and 
rigging-  Totally  disabled,  the  trip-hammer  seas  do  the 
rest.  They  pound  and  batter  the  craft  mercilessly,  starting 
leaks  in  all  directions,  so  that  the  boat  settles  down  into 
the  water.  The  crew,  unable  to  effect  any  repairs,  either 
put  off  from  the  foundering  craft  in  their  boats,  leaving 
her  to  her  fate,  or  are  taken  off  by  a  passing  ship,  which 
answers  their  signals  of  distress.  Then  the  long,  long, 
drifting  cruise  of  the  derelict  commences.  It  does  not  end 
until  she  is  ground  to  pieces  among  the  ice,  destroyed  by 
explosives,  shot  and  shell,  or  perhaps  splits  open  in  a 
hundred  different  places  under  the  tremendous  pressure 
exerted  by  the  swelling  cargo  within,  which  effects  its 
escape,  to  become  scattered  broadcast,  while  the  hulk  itself 
goes  to  its  last  account.  Occasionally  the  derelict  escapes 
this  fate  for  one  better.  She  is  picked  up  by  a  passing 
boat  and  towed  into  port,  possibly  bringing  the  salvor  a 
rich  reward  for  his  perseverance. 

These  waifs  of  the  ocean  are  more  nomadic  than  the 
most  perfect  tramp  on  shore.  They  are  tossed  to  and  fro, 
being  first  swept  southwards,  then  northwards,  are  scurried 
towards  the  American  coast  to  be  beaten  back  by  adverse 
winds  and  currents  towards  Europe.  In  some  instances 
highly  remarkable  journeys  have  been  made  by  these 
masterless  craft.  There  was  the  Crown,  which  left  Nova 
Scotia  for  a  South  American  port,  with  a  valuable  cargo  of 


CLEARING    THE    OCEAN    HIGHWAYS      191 

lumber.  The  crew  of  this  Norwegian  barque  had  an  un- 
enviable Christmas  Day  fighting-  desperately  for  their  lives 
and  their  ship  against  a  hurricane  which  they  experienced 
off  the  Sargasso  Sea.  The  elements  won.  The  ship  was 
reduced  to  a  chaotic  mass  of  mastless  and  rudderless 
wreckage.  It  was  impossible  to  make  port,  so  the  crew^ 
put  off  in  their  boats  and  were  never  seen  again.  Had 
they  stuck  to  their  ship  they  might  have  been  saved, 
as  the  Crowfij  after  disappearing  from  sight  for  three 
months,  suddenly  reappeared  on  the  western  edge  of  the 
Sargasso  Sea,  the  fabled  resting-place  of  derelicts.  She 
had  drifted  no  less  than  700  miles  in  these  93  days.  She 
slipped  from  sight  once  more  to  be  espied  still  farther 
west,  a  fortnight  later,  and  finally  was  seen  drifting  oflf  the 
Bermudas.  Then  she  vanished  from  all  mortal  knowledge, 
although  mariners  are  keeping  a  sharp  look-out,  as  it  is 
quite  within  the  bounds  of  possibility  that  she  will  crop 
up  again,  perhaps  off  the  coast  of  Ireland,  unless  her 
swelling  cargo  has  wrenched  her  to  fragments. 

The  Netta  Champion  was  another  wanderer  of  the  first 
class.  She  fouled  the  same  hurricane  that  devastated  the 
Crown  and  was  similarly  abandoned.  Without  a  guiding 
human  hand  she  started  off  on  a  long  trip  towards  Europe, 
and  wandered  into  the  great  steamship  lanes.  Liner  after 
liner  dodged  her,  until  on  May  16,  191 2,  she  was  espied 
near  the  30th  meridian  and  latitude  50°,  making  apparently 
for  the  west  coasts  of  the  Shetland  Islands. 

But  the  most  extraordinary  instances  of  the  long  journeys 
sometimes  covered  by  these  hulks,  are  afforded  by  the 
schooners  Alma  Cummings,  the  Fannie  E.  Wolston,  and 
the  Wyer  G.  Sargent.  All  three  put  up  remarkable 
records  as  much  for  the  irregularity  of  their  wanderings, 
as  for  the  distances  covered.  The  Wyer  G.  Sargent  was 
caught  in  a  storm  while  threading  the  troublous  waters 
around  Cape  Hatteras  on  March  31,  i8qi,  and  was  aban- 
doned as  a  total  wTeck,  her  crew  thinking  that  within  an 
hour  or  so  she  would  enter  that  ocean  graveyard.  But 
to  the  surprise  of  the  crew  she  was  sighted  thirty-five  days 


192     STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST   OF  THE   WORLD 

later,  well  on  an  uncontrolled  voyage  to  Europe,  having 
covered  several  hundred  miles.  Then,  caught  by  adverse 
winds  and  currents,  she  was  driven  300  miles  back,  and 
on  June  10  was  apparently  making  for  the  spot  where  she 
had  been  left  to  her  fate.  Navigators  thought  they  had 
seen  this  danger  for  the  last  time ;  they  surmised  that  once 
she  got  tangled  among  the  Diamond  shoals  she  would 
never  emerge  upon  the  ocean  again.  They  were  doomed 
to  disappointment,  because  on  July  2  she  was  sighted  right 
on  the  main  track  between  New  York  and  Europe,  north- 
eastward bound,  and  going  strongly.  By  the  15th  of  the 
same  month  she  had  put  another  800  miles  to  her  credit, 
and  then  she  became  most  capricious  in  her  movements, 
as  she  incessantly  doubled  and  redoubled  upon  her  tracks. 
On  October  20  she  was  seen  making  for  Madeira,  barely 
800  miles  away,  but  suddenly  changed  her  course,  as  on 
November  23  she  was  spoken  farther  south  and  more  to 
the  west.  She  was  seen  for  the  last  time  on  December  6. 
Her  end  no  one  has  been  able  to  guess,  but  from  that  day 
to  this  she  never  has  troubled  navigation  further. 

The  Fannie  E.  Wolston  was  abandoned  in  October  of 
the  same  year  as  witnessed  the  apparent  foundering  of 
the  Wyer  G.  Sargent,  and  curiously  enough  also  off  Cape 
Hatteras.  From  this  point  she  drove  straight  across  the 
Atlantic  to  longitude  40°,  hugging  the  outskirts  of  the 
steamship  lanes.  Then  she  struck  south,  blundered  back 
in  a  north-westerly  direction,  and  kept  zigzagging  to  and 
fro  around  one  spot,  until  she  ventured  on  a  long  trip  south- 
ward. Then  came  a  long  reach  towards  the  American 
coast,  the  helpless  craft  being  sighted  south  of  the  Ber- 
mudas en  route  to  Cape  Hatteras.  The  vessel,  however, 
changed  her  mind,  wore  southwards,  and  then  worked  up 
the  Florida  coast,  where  she  slipped  from  sight  after 
wandering  about  the  North  Atlantic  for  some  four  years, 
imperilling  steamship  traffic  in  all  directions.  She  was 
sighted  on  no  less  than  forty-six  occasions,  was  boarded 
time  after  time,  but  she  was  not  worth  the  expenditure 
of  a  tow-rope.     The  last  party  who  boarded  her  sought  to 


Vj; 


'» 


11 


41,  ^ 


"Bsa: 


THE    BATTEREn    HULK   OK   A    DKKELICT 

Sliowing  the  complete  iiatiiie  of  tlie  destruction  wroiiglit  liy  wind  and  wave.     Wlieii  the  ahove 
abandoned  vessel  was  caught  by  tlie  crew  of  tlie  United  States  derelict  destroyer  .SV««ca, 
and  boarded,  she  was  deemed  wortliy  of  salvage,  so  was  towed  into  New  York. 


CLEARING    THE    OCEAN    HIGHWAYS      193 

bring  about  her  destruction  with  fire,  leaving  her  to  drift  a 
flaming  beacon  until  she  was  burned  to  the  water's  edge. 
Whether  this  hurried  her  final  disappearance  or  not,  no 
one  knows,  but  before  she  was  seen  for  the  last  time,  a 
charred,  battered  wreck,  she  had  covered  over  9000  miles 
without  a  hand  to  guide  her. 

The  story  of  the  Alma  Cummings  is  somewhat  more 
sensational.  She  fouled  a  blizzard  off  Cape  May  during 
February  1896  and  suffered  sorely.  Her  masts  and  rigging 
were  carried  away,  together  with  every  stick  of  super- 
structure on  the  deck.  Labouring  in  the  trough  of  the  sea 
the  waves  bore  down  on  her  time  after  time,  flooding  her 
cabins  and  reducing  the  crew  to  a  pitiable  condition.  All 
the  provisions  were  spoiled,  and  even  the  friendly  fire  was 
denied  them,  since  all  the  matches  were  soaked.  After 
careful  deliberation  the  captain  decided  to  abandon  her, 
but  realising  that  she  might  stray  into  the  ocean  highways, 
he  decided  to  send  her  to  the  bottom  once  and  for  all. 
The  problem  was,  how  to  bring  about  this  destruction. 
Scuttling  was  useless,  as  she  would  simply  settle  lower  into 
the  water  to  become  a  more  difficult  obstacle  for  detection. 
At  last  a  can  of  paraffin  was  brought  into  the  cabin,  and 
the  vessel  was  set  alight  by  discharging  a  rifle  into  the 
oil.  When  the  crew  finally  bid  the  Alma  Cum,mings  adieu 
to  be  taken  on  board  a  friendly  vessel  attracted  by  the 
smoke,  she  was  burning  furiously.  One  and  all  thought 
that  her  end  was  merely  a  matter  of  a  few  hours. 

But  the  expected  did  not  happen.  A  few  weeks  later  a 
hulk  was  espied  off  the  English  coast  and  boarded.  It 
proved  to  be  the  Ahna  Cumm,ings,  whom  every  mariner 
thought  was  safely  imprisoned  in  Davy  Jones's  locker. 
Her  deck  had  been  devoured  by  the  flames,  but  the  cargo 
being  soddened  had  refused  to  burn,  and  the  fire  had 
wrought  no  vital  damage.  It  was  hoped  that  she  would 
smash  herself  to  pieces  on  the  iron-bound  coasts,  but  when 
this  fate  appeared  certain  the  vessel  made  a  dive  south- 
wards along  the  coast  of  France,  cleared  the  deadly  Ushant, 
and  was  next  seen  off  the  Azores.     Then  she  made  another 


194    STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

weary  drag  across  the  Atlantic,  covering  some  6000  miles 
before  she  threw  herself  on  the  shores  of  Panama,  never 
to  ride  the  waves  again. 

It  is  very  seldom  indeed  that  a  steel  steamship  will  keep 
afloat  when  she  has  been  badly  smashed  by  the  elements, 
but  there  was  one  notorious  boat  of  this  type  which  defied 
destruction.  This  was  the  single  screw  tramp  Dunmore. 
This  steamer  of  3,500  tons  left  Cardiff  on  December  20, 
1905,  for  Newport  News  with  3000  tons  of  Welsh  steam 
coal.  The  whole  vessel  as  she  floated  was  worth  some 
;^i4,ooo,  or  $70,000.  The  close  of  that  year  was  unlucky, 
owing  to  the  numerous  and  terrific  blizzards  which  swept 
the  Atlantic,  wreaking  widespread  damage  to  shipping. 
The  Dunmore  had  well-nigh  completed  her  journey  when 
she  lost  her  propeller.  The  captain  held  on  to  his  ship  for 
some  time,  in  the  hope  that  he  would  be  picked  up,  but 
was  disappointed.  Then  the  vessel,  as  a  result  of  the 
pounding  received  from  the  heavy  seas,  commenced  to 
leak  and  gradually  settled  down.  Fearing  that  she  might 
take  the  final  plunge  at  any  minute,  the  crew  put  off  in 
their  boats,  and  contrived  to  reach  Baltimore,  the  vessel 
having  been  left  to  her  fate  about  600  miles  off  Cape 
Cod. 

The  trans-Atlantic  liner  St.  Louis  came  into  New  York 
during  the  following  March  with  one  of  the  strangest 
stories  of  the  sea  that  has  ever  been  related.  At  mid- 
night, on  the  14th,  the  look-out  suddenly  drew  attention 
to  a  steamer  behaving  curiously  right  in  the  track  of  the 
greyhound.  She  was  riding  the  waves,  and  it  was  seen 
in  a  moment  that  she  was  out  of  control.  The  liner  swung 
to  the  south  to  clear  the  strange  craft  and  hailed  her. 
There  was  no  response,  but  as  they  drew  near  they  heard 
the  rats  scuttling  to  and  fro,  startled  by  the  blast  of  the 
syren.  The  boat  had  a  heavy  list  to  one  side,  was  a  mass 
of  red  rust  and  the  funnel  had  been  snapped  off  like  a 
carrot.  It  was  fortunate  for  the  St.  Louis  that  the  night 
was  clear  and  bright,  for  she  was  off  the  Grand  Banks  at 
the  time,  and  had  the  usual  fog  prevailed  and  the  liner 


CLEARING    THE    OCEAN    HIGHWAYS      195 

had  crashed  into  the  hulk  head  on,  another  terrible  calamity 
probably  would  have  been  placed  on  record. 

The  weird  derelict  proved  to  be  the  Dunmore,  long 
posted  as  having  foundered,  but  from  all  appearances  fit 
to  ride  the  seas  for  many  a  day.  The  shipping  community 
became  anxious,  for  the  3,500  tons  of  helplessness  was 
floundering  to  and  fro  across  the  steamship  lanes.  In 
their  alarm  a  sealer  was  chartered  at  St.  John's  to  go  out 
to  search  for  her,  and  either  to  sink  or  tow  her  to  port. 
But  the  sealer  scoured  the  Atlantic  in  vain  :  she  never 
caught  a  glimpse  of  the  derelict.  Time  after  time  the 
vessel  was  spoken  by  the  various  mail-carriers,  as  she 
persistently  clung  to  the  ocean  highways.  Once  or  twice 
a  vessel  paused,  passed  a  tow-rope  to  the  derelict  and 
dragged  her  several  miles  to  one  side  out  of  the  way,  but 
she  always  got  back  again.  The  companies  urged  the 
British  Government  to  dispatch  a  warship  on  her  tracks 
and  to  settle  her  once  and  for  all  with  a  mine  or  bombard- 
ment. In  response  to  this  appeal  five  cruisers  set  out 
from  Bermuda,  and  although  they  ransacked  the  North 
Atlantic  the  Dunmore  eluded  them  completely.  Merchant- 
men still  continued  to  sight  her  repeatedly,  and  one  or 
two  even  attempted  to  get  her  to  port,  as  the  salvage  award 
would  have  been  heavy,  but  the  rope  always  broke,  and 
the  Dunmore  got  away.  What  her  ultimate  end  was  no 
one  knows — probably  she  was  cast  ashore  to  be  smashed 
to  smithereens,  or  in  turn  was  rammed  and  sent  to  the 
bottom.  The  fact,  however,  remains  that  she  kept  the 
companies  engaged  in  the  greyhound  service  on  tenter- 
hooks for  weeks.  She  might  have  been  put  out  of  harm's 
way  when  abandoned  had  the  crew  only  thought  of  open- 
ing her  sea-cocks.  Then  she  would  have  gone  to  the 
bottom  like  a  stone. 

The  derelict,  if  it  can  be  recovered,  is  invariably  worth 
every  effort  put  forth  for  this  purpose.  She  is  generally 
laden  with  lumber,  which  always  fetches  a  high  price, 
more  particularly  if  it  is  well-soaked  from  long  immersion 
in  salt  water.  There  was  the  single  screw  steamer  Loch 
o  2 


196    STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

Maree,  which  left  the  American  seaboard  with  a  cargo 
of  cotton.  While  rounding  the  north  coast  of  Ireland  she 
was  assailed  by  tempests,  ran  out  of  coal,  and  in  distress 
signalled  a  passing  steamer.  The  tow-rope  was  passed, 
and  the  Maryland  endeavoured  to  bring  the  helpless  cargo 
boat  into  safety,  but  was  so  damaged  in  the  process  that, 
after  taking  off  the  crew,  she  let  the  Loch  Maree  go.  The 
freighter  drifted,  an  unmanageable  hulk,  towards  the 
Hebrides,  but  a  tug  in  Liverpool,  hearing  of  her  wealthy 
cargo,  put  out,  firmly  resolved  to  get  hold  of  her.  The 
derelict  was  secured  i8o  miles  north  of  Inishtrahull,  and 
within  a  few  hours  was  made  fast  to  the  quay  at  Belfast, 
little  the  worse  for  her  adventure,  but  the  rescuing  tug 
richer  by  £t,<^6o  ($39,800)  as  salvage  award.  The  Cubana 
was  another  rich  prize.  She  put  out  from  Newfoundland 
with  a  cargo  of  copper  ore  for  South  Wales.  She 
weathered  the  Atlantic  safely,  but  off  the  Irish  coast  came 
to  grief  in  a  gale,  which  carried  away  her  rudder.  As  the 
winter  was  advancing,  and  the  ship  was  drifting  away  from 
the  usual  tracks  of  passing  vessels,  the  crew  left  her  to  the 
mercy  of  the  elements.  The  Cubana  drove  to  and  fro  over 
the  seas  for  the  whole  of  that  winter  and  the  succeeding 
spring,  keeping  well  to  the  northward. 

One  morning  the  fisher  folk  on  the  west  coast  of  the 
Shetland  Islands  were  astonished  to  see  a  sailing-vessel 
standing  in  to  shore.  Her  sails  were  torn  and  dishevelled, 
and  her  masts  were  somewhat  knocked  out,  but  otherwise 
she  appeared  to  be  all  right.  They  hailed  her,  but  received 
no  response.  Then  they  put  out  in  a  boat  and  boarded 
her.  Utter  silence  prevailed.  The  deck  was  littered  with 
debris,  but  the  ship  herself  was  as  sound  as  the  day  she 
first  slipped  into  the  v^ater  down  the  launching-ways.  She 
had  been  abandoned — that  was  all  too  evident.  Satisfied 
upon  her  seaworthiness  a  scratch  crew  was  made  up,  and 
the  little  party  got  her  safely  berthed  in  the  nearest  port, 
being  rewarded  with  ^^2,000,  or  $10,000  for  their  trouble. 
Seeing  that  many  of  these  derelicts  are  so  valuable,  why 
is  not  a  sound  commercial  effort  made  to  hunt  them  down 


CLEARING    THE    OCEAN    HIGHWAYS      197 

and  to  bring  them  into  port?  It  is  computed  that  nearly 
200  derelicts  are  drifting  to  and  fro  in  the  Atlantic  every 
year,  and  ten  per  cent,  alone  of  these  prizes  would  well 


repay  derelict  hunters.  That  the  enterprise  is  full  of 
possibilities  the  experience  of  the  United  States  derelict 
destroyer  Seneca  proves  very  convincingly.  This  vessel 
was  built  specially  for  this  work  by  the  United  States 
Government,   which,   realising  the  crowded  nature  of  the 


198    STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST  OF  THE   WORLD 

ocean  lanes,  decided  that  they  should  be  kept  as  free  from 
obstructions  as  a  busy  thoroughfare  in  a  large  city. 

The  Seneca  is  known  officially  as  a  Revenue  Cutter, 
being  attached  to  this  service,  but  her  calling  is  varied. 
She  performs  whatever  duties  may  be  required  in  the 
revenue  service,  is  a  derelict  hunter,  and  also  a  life-saving 
ship.  She  has  a  wide  area  of  sea  to  patrol,  stretching  from 
Portland,  Maine,  to  Sable  Island,  Nova  Scotia,  thence 
southwards  as  far  as  Bermuda,  and  from  that  point  west- 
wards to  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  this  cruising  radius 
being  about  4000  miles.  She  is  not  severely  limited  to  this 
tract,  however.  If  the  exigencies  arise  she  will  scour 
farther  afield,  and  indeed  on  several  occasions  has  gone 
many  hundred  miles  beyond  the  boundary  of  her 
operations. 

She  was  placed  in  commission  in  October  1908.     Her 
over-all  length  is  294  feet,  beam  34  feet,  schooner  rigged, 
with  two  pole  masts  without  gaffs.     She  may  be  identified 
readily  from  the  signal  yard  carried  on  the  foremast,  from 
each  end  of  which  is  displayed  a  black  spherical  shape, 
about  three  feet  in  diameter.     She  is  equipped  with  wire- 
less telegraphy,  and  carries  two  occulting  truck  lights,  red 
on  the  foremast  and  white  on  the  main-mast,  with  simul- 
taneous   fifteen-second    flashes    and    intervals    for    night- 
signalling.      Her  home   station   is  Tompkinsville,   Staten 
Island,  New  York,  and  she  is  kept  ready  for  service  at  a 
moment's  notice,  either  to  save  life,  for  which  she  is  com- 
pletely equipped,  or  to  trace  an  obstacle  and  then  to  destroy 
it.     An  incoming  vessel,  which  has  sighted  a  derelict,  is 
requested  to  communicate  the  intelligence  to  a  land  station, 
giving  its  exact  location  when  sighted,  the  force  and  direc- 
tion of  the  wind  and  sea,  together  with  an  estimate  of  the 
drifting  speed  of  the  obstruction.     Upon   receipt  of  this 
intimation    the    Seneca   sails,    and   with    the   details   pro- 
vided as  a  guide,   carries  out  her  search.     If  the  wreck 
when  found  is  worth  recovering,  she  is  brought  back  into 
port :  if  not  she  is  blown  to  atoms,  and  her  days  of  threaten- 
ing danger  are  ended  abruptly.     If  the  Seneca  happens 


CLEARING    THE    OCEAN    HIGHWAYS      199 

to  be  at  sea,  the  vessel  is  invited  to  communicate  the 
intimation  direct  by  wireless,  by  calling  the  letters 
"R.C.E."  If  the  destroyer  is  within  wireless  call,  she 
answers  promptly,  and  is  able  to  hurry  towards  the  derelict 
wherever  it  may  be,  without  any  delay. 

But  this  hunt  for  a  derelict  is  not  nearly  so  simple  as 
it  seems.  The  ocean  waif  is  a  most  elusive  quarry.  Upon 
arrival  at  the  location  indicated  by  the  wireless  or  other 
message,  the  captain  of  the  Seneca  computes  how  many 
miles  the  wreck  may  have  drifted  since  it  was  sighted. 
He  then  follows  an  expanding  spiral  course  around  this 
central  spot,  sweeping  the  sea  on  either  side  for  a  glimpse 
of  the  quarry.  Once  it  has  been  rounded  up  there  is  no 
escape.  An  inspection  is  made  from  the  small  boats  to 
determine  its  character — whether  the  flotsam  is  detached, 
or  is  merely  a  projection  from  a  hull  beneath.  In  any  event 
the  obstruction  is  shattered  by  the  aid  of  explosives,  if  not 
worth  recovery.  The  Seneca  carries  complete  facilities 
for  coping  with  any  description  of  wreckage,  although  its 
principal  destructive  servant  is  gun-cotton,  twenty-five 
sixty-pound  charges  of  which  are  carried  with  primers, 
detonators,  battery,  wires,  etc.,  to  operate  them. 

The  gun-cotton  comprises  little  blocks  measuring  3 
inches  square  by  2  inches  in  thickness.  These  are  packed 
into  copper  canisters  measuring  9J  inches  square  by  12 
inches  high,  around  a  central  case  slipped  into  the  mine. 
The  latter  is  filled  with  dry  gun-cotton  to  form  the  firing- 
charge,  the  latter  being  ignited  by  the  aid  of  a  fulminate 
of  mercury  primer,  which  is  electrically  detonated,  the 
wires  for  this  purpose  being  led  through  a  special  water- 
tight rubber  cap.  The  requisite  current  is  furnished  from 
a  small  battery. 

The  method  of  blowing  up  the  wreckage  varies  accord- 
ing to  its  character  and  circumstances.  If  it  is  a  mast,  a 
chain  is  lowered  over  the  top  of  the  obstacle  and  the  mine 
attached  to  it  is  sunk  until  it  reaches  the  bottom  of  the 
spar.  The  crew  then  row  away  to  a  safe  distance,  paying 
out  the   firing  cable  as   they  proceed,  and  when   at  last 


200    STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST   OF   THE    WORLD 

beyond  the  zone  of  the  explosion,  the  button  is  pressed, 
and  the  spar  is  shivered  to  pieces  in  a  column  of  water. 
If  the  wreckage  is  a  deck-house  or  some  other  bulky 
fitting  which  has  broken  away  from  its  ship,  a  cable  is 
passed  around  it  in  such  a  way  that  the  mine  connected 
with  it  is  brought  approximately  beneath  the  centre  of  the 
obstruction.  In  this  instance  the  derelict  is  split  into  frag- 
ments, which  either  sink,  or  being  of  harmless  dimensions, 
are  permitted  to  drift. 

A  complete  vessel  is  a  much  more  difficult  obstruction 
to  handle.  In  some  cases,  if  the  craft  can  be  boarded 
safely,  the  charge  is  distributed  in  suitable  quantities  within 
the  hull,  and  then  detonated.  In  this  case  the  ship  is  split 
open  in  all  directions,  to  permit  the  water  to  enter,  and 
thus  to  bring  about  her  complete  disappearance.  This 
method,  however,  is  practicable  as  a  rule  only  with  iron 
and  steel  hulks.  With  wooden  ships  nothing  short  of 
complete  annihilation  is  satisfactory,  and  in  this  instance 
a  considerable  quantity  of  gun-cotton  has  to  be  expended. 
Sometimes  the  wreck  has  settled  to  the  bottom,  but  lies  in 
the  shallow  fairway  of  passing  vessels,  and  thereby 
obstructs  their  safe  movement.  This  was  the  case  with  the 
Belle  Halliday,  which  foundered  with  a  cargo  of  paving- 
stones.  Two  boats,  each  bearing  the  end  of  a  cable  to 
which  the  mines  were  attached,  rowed  alongside  the  wreck 
and  lowered  the  mines  carefully,  so  that  they  were  swept 
by  the  tide  to  a  position  under  the  bilges  of  the  sunken 
schooner.  When  this  charge  was  fired,  the  wreck  was  sent 
sky-high  with  her  cargo,  the  whole  being  blown  literally 
to  atoms,  and  leaving  the  channel  quite  clear. 

But  the  Seneca  is  not  a  destroying  force  purely  and 
simply.  If  a  wreck  can  possibly  be  retrieved  she  will  spare 
no  effort  to  bring  it  into  port.  The  latest  feat  of  this 
description  up  to  the  time  of  writing  was  in  connection 
with  the  Frederick  Roessner,  which  was  abandoned  on 
June  9,  191 2,  in  latitude  35°  48'  N.,  by  longitude  74°  05'  W. 
She  was  reported  to  the  Seneca,  who  immediately  gave 
chase,  and  four  davs  later  she  was  run  down  in  latitude 


CLEARING   THE    OCEAN    HIGHWAYS      201 

37°  40'  N.,  by  longitude  68°  50'  W.,  having  drifted  no  less 
than  285  miles  in  96  hours.  When  picked  up  she  was  a 
helpless  hulk.  Not  a  stick  of  her  rigging  was  standing, 
and  her  decks  were  awash.  A  reconnaissance  revealed  the 
fact  that,  despite  her  desperate  plight,  the  derelict  might 
be  saved,  so  a  towing-rope  was  hitched  on,  and  the  wreck 
was  towed  into  New  York.  Since  she  was  placed  in  com- 
mission, the  Seneca  has  cleared  40  obstructions  from  the 
ocean  highway,  including  the  Frederick  Roessner,  of  which 
total  6  abandoned  vessels  were  salvaged  and  brought  into 
port;  8  pieces  of  floating  wreckage  had  been  removed;  9 
parts  of  dangerous  vessels  had  been  shattered  into  harm- 
lessness;  while  17  spars  attached  to  submerged  rigging 
had  been  dealt  with. 

From  the  experience  of  the  Seneca  in  the  western  North 
Atlantic  waters,  it  would  seem  that  a  similar  vessel  might 
very  advantageously  be  kept  in  commission  by  the  British 
steamship  companies  or  Admiralty.  Not  only  would  it 
protect  their  costly  liners,  but  at  the  same  time  the  outfit 
would  be  almost  self-supporting,  judging  from  the  Seneca's 
harvest,  inasmuch  as  the  recovered  vessels  would  bring  in 
handsome  salvage  awards.  Seeing  that  the  volume  of 
British  shipping  completely  eclipses  that  of  any  other 
nation,  it  is  somewhat  surprising  that  no  thought  is  given 
to  its  insurance  against  one  of  the  greatest  perils  to  which 
it  is  exposed. 

Some  misconception  has  arisen  in  connection  with 
derelicts.  Often  one  may  pick  up  the  newspaper  to  read 
that  such-and-such  a  ship  reports  having  struck  a  sub- 
merged derelict  in  mid-ocean.  It  is  difficult  to  realise  how 
this  can  be  the  case,  since,  unless  some  part  of  the  ship 
is  protruding  above  the  water,  it  must  sink  to  the  bottom. 
It  could  not  remain  in  suspension,  as  it  were,  at  a  depth 
of  30,100  or  1000  feet,  if  completely  covered.  It  is  quite 
possible  that  the  buoyancy  of  the  obstruction  might  be 
reduced  to  such  a  point  that  its  weight  exactly  equalled 
that  of  the  water  displaced,  in  which  event  it  would  float  at 
the  surface  without  revealing  any  of  its  form  above  the 


202     STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST  OF  THE   WORLD 

water,  but  this  is  very  problematic.  Directly  the  weight 
of  the  hulk  exceeds  that  of  the  water  displaced,  it  must 
founder.  The  only  manner  in  which  a  derelict  may  be 
described  as  submerged,  is  where  the  deck  itself  is  covered 
for  ten  or  more  feet,  and  a  mast  attached  to  it  projects 
above  the  water.  In  this  instance  the  latter  only  continues 
visible,  since  the  weight  of  the  submerged  hulk  is  less  than 
the  weight  of  the  water  displaced.  Directly  the  mast  is 
removed  the  wreck  sinks  to  the  ocean  bed. 


CHAPTER    XV 

SHIPS   THAT  MAKE   FEW    PORTS 

While  the  great  ocean  ferries  ply  regularly  along  the 
well-defined  lanes  connecting  specified  ports  with  the  pre- 
cision of  railway  trains,  other  vessels  innumerable,  of  all 
sizes  and  speeds,  sailing  as  well  as  steam,  wander  aimlessly 
about  the  seven  seas,  picking  up  sustenance,  in  the  form 
of  freights,  wherever  and  whenever  they  can,  ready  to  go 
anywhere,  with  or  for  anything.  These  are  the  gipsies  of 
the  ocean,  forming  that  great  tramp  fleet  which,  although 
it  is  somewhat  unfamiliar  to  the  public,  nevertheless  is  of 
overwhelming  importance,  as  it  constitutes  the  backbone 
of  the  mercantile  marine,  and  is  responsible  for  the 
supremacy  of  Great  Britain  as  a  maritime  nation.  These 
vessels  transport  goods  which  the  spick  and  span  haughty 
mail  and  passenger  flyer  regard  with  disdain,  and  the 
character  of  which  is  as  varied  as  the  tramps  themselves. 

In  order  to  grasp  the  significance  of  this  class  of  vessel 
one  has  only  to  wander  around  the  docks  of  any  big  port, 
to  find,  jammed  between  the  bigger  and  better-known  boats, 
or  tucked  away  in  obscure  corners,  craft  which  touch  ports 
of  which  the  average  person  knows  nothing.  More  often 
than  not  the  appearance  of  the  craft  substantiates  its 
generic  name.  It  recalls  the  nomad  of  our  highways, 
being  ill-kempt  and  even  at  times  repulsive  in  its  appear- 
ance. Possibly  the  paint  has  been  battered  from  its  hull 
by  wind  and  wave,  until  one  is  unable  to  imagine  its 
appearance  at  the  time  it  left  the  builder's  yard.  Its 
original  garb  has  been  superseded  by  a  red  rust  applied 
with  Father  Neptune's  brush — salt  spray.  The  deck  looks 
woe-begone,  while  the  engines  rattle  like  shot  in  a  tin  can. 
Yet  the  vessel  is  as  tight  as  the  glistening  lordly  liner 

203 


204    STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

moored  near  by,  and  the  chances  are  that  when  at  sea,  with 
the  elements  raging  in  torment,  the  insignificant,  disreput- 
able-looking tramp  is  the  better  sea-boat  of  the  two. 

All  tramps,  however,  do  not  coincide  with  this  descrip- 
tion. Many  rank  as  large  as  a  liner,  and  are  just  as  trim 
and  prim,  the  paint  still  retaining  its  sheen,  the  brasswork 
reflecting  like  a  mirror,  and  the  engines  moving  as  noise- 
lessly and  as  rhythmically  as  in  the  finest  leviathan  afloat. 
But  the  tramp  cannot  help  being  knocked  about.  It  has  to 
weather  seas  which  the  titan  seldom  or  never  meets,  and 
at  times  has  to  carry  cargoes  which  are  nauseous  or 
awkward.  It  is  an  all-round  type  of  craft,  capable  of  riding 
a  hurricane,  penetrating  the  Arctic  or  Antarctic  circles, 
ready  to  handle  grain  or  iron,  and  to  maintain  a  steady 
eight  or  nine  knots  under  varying  conditions  as  the  flyer 
is  able  to  cross  the  Atlantic  in  six  days  or  less. 

These  vessels  penetrate  to  the  uttermost  parts  of  the 
earth,  and  when  the  captain  puts  out  from  his  home  port 
he  never  knows  when  he  will  see  it  again.  The  skipper 
is  a  unique  type  of  navigator,  full  of  resource,  dauntless, 
and  ready  for  any  emergency,  with  an  aff"ection  for  his 
forlorn,  despised  craft  that  is  difficult  to  understand.  He 
knows  her  every  whim,  coaxes  her  when  she  is  disposed 
to  be  sulky,  and  handles  her  gently  when  she  is  thrown 
head  first  against  the  trials  and  tribulations  of  the  deep. 
Probably  one  cannot  mention  a  stretch  of  water  with  which 
he  is  not  familiar,  and  he  has  very  expressive  opinions 
concerning  the  various  ports  of  the  world.  Even  if  he  is 
dispatched  to  a  sea  which  he  has  never  penetrated  before 
he  does  not  hesitate. 

How  many  people  have  ever  heard  of  Ivitgut  or  know 
anything  about  "kyrolith  "  ?  Yet  every  year  from  eight  to 
twelve  ships  put  into  this  port  and  receive  a  full  cargo  of 
this  material,  which  is  of  great  commercial  value.  It  is 
about  one  of  the  most  difficult  and  hazardous  shipping 
points  to  reach,  for  it  is  within  a  few  miles  of  the  Arctic 
circle,  on  the  south-west  coast  of  Greenland,  and  is 
approachable    for   onlv   a    few    weeks    in    the    vear.      The 


SHIPS    THAT    MAKE    FEW    PORTS        205 

deposits  of  this  product  are  worked  by  a  Danish  company 
which  has  established  a  small  colony  at  this  port,  and  this 
handful  of  hardy  toilers  receive  supplies  and  necessaries 
from  Denmark  once  a  year.  The  whole  of  the  output  is 
purchased  by  a  firm  in  the  United  States,  and  what  is 
known  as  the  "chemical  fleet,"  from  the  peculiar  names  of 
the  vessels  engaged  in  the  trade,  take  it  to  Philadelphia. 

In  order  to  gain  Ivitgut  the  vessels  have  to  thread 
most  treacherous  seas.  During  the  winter  the  port  is  as 
marooned  from  the  outside  world  as  the  Poles,  being  im- 
prisoned behind  a  barrier  of  ice.  The  vessels  put  out  from 
Philadelphia  in  the  spring,  and  the  journey  is  never  free 
from  exciting  adventure  and  sensational  tussles  with  Nature 
in  one  of  her  most  compelling  forms.  The  Labrador 
current,  coming  down  from  the  Arctic,  swings  along  this 
coast,  laden  with  masses  of  ice  broken  off  the  Greenland 
ice-cap.  The  kyrolith-carriers  are  exposed  to  the  full  brunt 
of  this  peril  as  they  come  sailing  down  Davis  Strait  in  a 
never-ending  line,  while  the  pack-ice  threatens  to  engulf 
any  vessel  which  has  the  temerity  to  venture  within  its 
grip.  The  wind-jammers  engaged  in  this  service  are  of 
especially  strong  construction,  the  bows  being  reinforced 
to  enable  the  ships  to  drive  through  heavy  ice  obstructions. 
They  do  not  resemble  craft  engaged  in  the  transport  of 
necessities  of  commerce ;  rather  they  look  like  vessels  bound 
upon  voyages  of  discovery  to  the  North  Pole. 

After  leaving  Philadelphia  the  vessels  make  for  a  cape 
bearing  the  mournful  name  of  Point  Desolation.  As  the 
northern  seas  are  entered  the  fight  for  progress  becomes 
more  and  more  grim.  They  have  to  smash  through  the 
drifting  ice,  dodging  the  larger  bergs,  which  is  no  easy 
matter,  bearing  in  mind  their  prolific  numbers,  and  more 
than  one  has  retired  from  the  fray  badly  battered  and 
bruised,  with  timbers  strained  and  leaking  ominously — 
mute  evidence  of  the  heaviness  of  the  seas,  the  severity  of 
the  gales,  and  the  grinding  action  of  the  ice.  If  the  varied 
forces  of  Nature  should  happen  to  combine,  then  the  odds 
pitted  against  the  vessel  are  overwhelming.    In  one  season 


2o6    STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

the  fleet  suffered  badly.  One  vessel  was  lost — dismantled, 
probably,  by  the  gales,  crushed  by  the  ice  and  pounded  by 
the  seas,  so  that  her  stoui  timbers  opened  up,  to  let  the 
water  in.  At  all  events  she  never  was  heard  of  again. 
Two  sister  ships  a  little  later  battled  against  adversity,  but 
could  make  no  headway — they  retired  from  the  unequal 
conflict  and  arrived  home  empty,  with  the  crews  thoroughly 
worn  out.  Another  had  a  stiff'  fight  struggling  with  an  ice- 
pack, and  reached  Ivitgut  a  month  late.  It  is  a  precarious 
journey,  but  the  traffic  has  been  in  progress  for  about 
half  a  century,  and,  taken  on  the  whole,  the  losses  have 
been  small.  The  vessels  are  built  so  stoutly  that  a  complete 
disaster  is  well-nigh  impossible. 

Clipperton  Island  is  not  familiar  to  many  ears,  yet  it  is 
visited  once  or  twice  a  year  by  a  schooner  to  bring  away 
a  valuable  cargo.  It  is  private  property,  having  been  pur- 
chased for  the  exploitation  of  its  phosphate  deposits.  It 
is  about  as  dreary  a  spot  as  could  be  imagined,  seeing  that 
there  is  not  a  tree  or  any  kind  of  vegetation  upon  its  arid 
hump,  rising  above  the  Pacific  many  hundred  miles  off 
the  Northern  Pacific  coastline.  Three  men  drag  out  a 
weary  existence  in  this  Robinson  Crusoe-land,  with  the 
gannet  birds  and  sand  crabs  as  companions.  They  expect 
a  schooner  to  arrive  about  mid-spring  for  a  cargo,  but  if 
it  misses  the  trip  they  pocket  their  chagrin  and  settle  down 
to  a  weary  wait  until  September.  Down  off  the  South 
American  coast,  far  removed  from  the  tracks  of  the  coast- 
ing vessels  in  the  Southern  Pacific  and  around  the  loneliest 
islands  lying  off  the  Australasian  mainland,  small  vessels 
may  be  seen  steering  to  unknown  places,  to  load  up  with 
guano.  These  journeys  are  made  through  terribly  lonely 
seas,  where,  should  disaster  supervene,  the  chances  are 
overwhelmingly  against  any  of  the  crew  or  ship  ever  being- 
seen  again.  Other  craft  proceed  warily  for  hundreds  of 
miles  up  the  inhospitable  Orinoco  or  Amazon,  braving  the 
dangers  of  malaria  and  other  scourges,  to  take  on  board 
unusual  cargoes,  such  as  one  of  the  rare  earths  necessary 
to   the   manufacture   of   a   certain    commercial    product,    a 


SHIPS    THAT    MAKE    FEW   PORTS        207 

consignment  of  dead  flies  of  a  peculiar  species  possessing 
great  nutritive  value  for  chicken-food,  grasses,  and  so  on. 

About  thirty  miles  off  the  coast  of  New  Zealand  there  is 
a  wicked  group  of  rocks.  The  average  vessel  gives  them 
a  wide  berth — a  simple  matter,  because  they  are  very  con- 
spicuous, both  to  the  eye  and  nostril.  They  form  a 
desolate  mass  rising  some  900  feet  from  the  sea,  and  the 
stranger  might  be  excused  if  he  took  it  for  a  belching 
volcano  in  full  blast,  judging  from  the  dense  white  clouds 
which  continually  rise  heavenwards  to  a  height  of  1000 
feet  or  so,  and  from  which  the  spot  takes  the  name  of  White 
Island.  If  the  wind  be  blowing  towards  the  passing  vessel, 
every  one  on  board  is  afflicted  with  violent  coughing, 
gasping  and  sneezing,  as  the  vapour  is  charged  heavily 
with  sulphuric  and  hydrochloric  acid  fumes,  so  powerful 
that  in  a  strong  wind  they  may  be  detected  sixty  miles 
distant. 

On  the  island  is  a  large  lake  of  what,  at  first  sight, 
appears  to  be  unsavoury  boiling  water,  from  whose  surface 
the  white  vapour  rolls  off  like  a  thick  fog,  with  blow- 
holes belching  forth  along  the  shore  on  all  sides.  The 
lake  is  a  mass  of  sulphuric  and  hydrochloric  acids  hissing 
and  bubbling  at  a  temperature  of  no  degrees  Fahrenheit, 
and  a  journey  across  its  breadth  is  a  most  exciting  experi- 
ence. A  friend  of  mine  visited  the  island  by  one  of  the 
small  tramp  steamers  that  call  there  occasionally  for 
sulphur,  with  a  view  to  the  exploitation  of  the  various 
mineral  deposits.  After  infinite  labour  a  boat  was  dragged 
across  the  beach  and  launched  on  the  lake,  with  a  view  to 
a  closer  inspection  of  the  blow-holes  and  the  abundance  of 
sulphur  lying  on  every  side.  They  escaped  suffocation 
from  the  fumes,  but  only  missed  a  worse  fate  very 
narrowly.  As  they  came  ashore  the  boat  nearly  dropped 
to  pieces,  and  had  to  be  abandoned  after  the  vessel  was 
regained — the  rivets  had  been  corroded  by  the  acids. 

At  rare  intervals  a  small  tramp  steamer  crawls  into  the 
semicircle  forming  Crater  Bay  and  casts  anchor.  Boats 
put  out  to  gain  a  flimsy  little  landing-stage,  formed  of  a 


2o8    STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

single  plank  propped  up  to  support  a  tiny  tramway,  down 
which  the  sulphur  is  rumbled,  to  be  transported  to  the 
tramp  outside.  The  shipping  of  the  acids  has  not  been 
taken  in  hand  yet,  a  job  which  probably  would  be  refused 
by  the  most  needy  tramp,  as  somewhat  too  dangerous  an 
undertaking. 

The  varied  freights  a  tramp  will  take  on  board  during 
a  single  cruise  at  sea  are  astonishing.  Here  is  a  typical 
case.  A  2000-ton ner  put  out  from  a  Welsh  port,  bound  for 
Canada,  with  a  cargo  of  steam  coal.  When  this  was  dis- 
charged, a  consignment  of  steel  rails  was  taken  on  board 
at  Sydney,  Nova  Scotia,  bound  for  Prince  Rupert.  This 
was  a  journey  in  itself,  as  the  vessel  had  to  steam  down 
one  side  of  the  whole  American  continent,  round  Cape 
Horn,  and  then  pull  up  the  opposite  coast-line  for  an 
almost  equal  distance.  Railway  metals  are  one  of  the 
worst  cargoes  that  a  ship  can  be  called  upon  to  negotiate. 
They  make  the  ship  exceedingly  stiff  and  rigid,  and  if 
bad  weather  should  be  encountered  she  gets  knocked  about 
and  strained  very  badly.  Rid  of  this  freight,  the  captain 
was  ordered  to  run  south  to  San  Francisco,  where  he 
took  on  board  a  cargo  for  Shanghai.  There  was  another 
short  run  to  Hong  Kong  for  a  cargo  of  cement,  which  was 
hurried  to  an  Australian  port.  A  cargo  of  coals  entailed 
another  short  journey  round  the  coast  of  the  Southern 
continent,  and  then,  taking  on  board  a  shipment  of  apples, 
he  set  his  head  for  home. 

At  times  the  tramp  sets  out  upon  a  mission  of  mystery, 
or  at  any  rate  upon  a  journey  of  dubious  intent.  Some  of 
the  more  unscrupulous  tramps  a  few  years  ago  were  in  the 
habit  of  gradually  edging  towards  the  South  Sea  Islands, 
for  the  purpose  of  indulging  in  the  profitable  game  of 
"black-birding."  This  was  the  forcible  acquisition  of 
Kanaka  labour,  which  was  secured  by  methods  reminiscent 
of  slavery  in  the  Southern  States,  the  unhappy  and  unwill- 
ing captives  being  stowed  on  board  these  vessels,  to  be 
smuggled  into  Queensland  to  meet  the  deficiency  in  white 
labour  among  the  sugar  planters.     It  was  a  highly   re- 


SHIPS    THAT    MAKE    FEW    PORTS        209 

munerative,  although  somewhat  risky,  game  while  it  lasted, 
but  the  Government  took  the  question  sternly  in  hand  and 
suppressed  it.  Now  and  again,  however,  a  few  of  these 
luckless  natives  will  be  got  aboard  a  passing  tramp,  the 
captain  of  which  is  willing  to  incur  the  risks  incidental  to 
the  calling,  and  for  a  high  consideration  will  take  them  to 
the  mainland.  Taken  on  the  whole,  however,  the  tramp 
steamer  prosecutes  a  clean  above-board  traffic,  as  she  very 
seldom  experiences  any  difficulty  in  getting  a  legitimate 
cargo  of  some  kind,  sort  or  description. 

What  of  the  men  forming  the  crew  of  these  wandering 
craft?  Undoubtedly  they  are  amongst  the  best  types  of 
sea-dogs  to  be  found,  hardened  by  rough  usage  to  the 
many,  varied  and  heavy  knocks  inflicted  by  the  sea  ; 
infused  with  a  striking  spirit  of  dare-devilry  and  self- 
reliance;  hard  workers,  and  of  dauntless  spirit,  ready  to 
face  any  emergency  that  may  be  sprung  upon  them.  The 
life  is  one  continual  round  of  adventure  and  hardship, 
with  very  few  short  interludes  of  pleasure.  As  a  rule  they 
are  engaged  in  a  hand-to-hand  struggle  for  their  preserva- 
tion, since,  running  promiscuously  from  sea  to  sea,  they 
never  anticipate  a  very  long  spell  of  fine  weather.  The 
"Plain  Tales  of  the  Sea"  are  all  narrated  by  the  men  of 
the  tramps,  and  if  one  questions  a  weather-beaten  old- 
timer,  more  often  than  not  he  will  express  his  inability  to 
recollect  how  many  times  he  has  been  wrecked.  The 
average  person  is  apt  to  regard  the  immaculately  uniformed 
officer  on  an  ocean  liner  as  a  typical  illustration  of  the 
merchant  sailor  of  to-day ;  but  compared  with  the  rugged, 
blusterous  boy  of  the  tramp,  the  former  is  a  fresh-water 
navigator,  who  does  not  know  what  trouble  is,  and  who 
never  has  been  thrown  up  "against  it"  probably  once  in 
his  life.  Among  the  crew,  and  especially  among  the 
"black  squad,"  you  will  meet  many  a  one  who  has  done 
his  gruelling  on  the  tramp,  and  who,  if  he  is  in  the  humour, 
can  relate  many  an  exciting  story. 

Take  the  case  of  the  Port  Darwin.     She  left  Cardiff  for 
Algiers,  and  then  backed  to  Rotterdam  with  a  cargo  of 
p 


210    STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

iron  ore.  But  the  latter  freight  was  never  delivered.  Off 
the  Spanish  coast  she  fell  in  with  a  gale,  and  the  angry 
Atlantic  rollers  swept  her  from  stem  to  stern.  She 
weathered  this  ordeal  with  very  little  signs  of  the  punches 
she  had  received,  only  to  smash  against  a  sunken  reef  off 
La  Guardia.  The  hull  was  punctured  like  a  pneumatic 
tyre,  and  the  water  rushed  in  so  furiously  that  the  engineer 
hazarded  the  guess  that  150  tons  entered  during  the  first 
minute.  The  men  down  in  the  stokehold  felt  the  bumps 
of  the  hull  against  the  rocks,  and  knew  only  too  well  that 
the  vessel  was  doomed ;  but  they  stuck  to  the  furnaces 
until  the  water  was  up  to  their  knees,  when  they  concluded 
that  it  was  time  to  go  up  on  deck  to  see  what  w^as  being 
done.  They  tripped  up  as  if  going  off  duty,  and  found 
the  remainder  of  the  crew  assembled  on  the  bridge  dis- 
cussing the  situation  with  the  captain  with  as  much  cool- 
ness as  if  they  were  conversing  at  a  street  corner.  The  ship 
was  in  a  perilous  position,  and  salvation  seemed  quite 
impossible  under  the  circumstances.  The  skipper  thought 
that  the  best  thing  was  to  try  to  run  the  ship  another  five 
miles  inshore,  so  as  to  beach  her.  He  turned  to  the 
begrimed  firemen  and  asked  them  if  they  were  willing  to 
descend  into  the  stokehold,  to  enable  the  attempt  to  be 
made.  One  and  all  signified  assent,  and  once  more  the 
black  squad  disappeared  into  the  depths  of  the  vessel.  The 
pumps  were  set  going  to  their  utmost,  although  the  water 
got  in  faster  than  it  was  pumped  out,  while  the  firemen 
worked  like  Trojans,  crowding  on  steam  for  the  last  run. 
Fortunately  one  bulkhead  held  out,  and  that  kept  the  vessel 
afloat ;  but  to  make  that  five  miles  the  ship  took  a  solid 
four  and  a  half  hours,  during  which  time  the  lifeboat  and 
the  dinghy  were  smashed  to  atoms  by  the  waves.  With  a 
crash  the  vessel  was  thrown  on  the  rocks,  the  firemen 
rushed  up  the  ladders  hand  over  hand,  and  as  they  got 
to  the  deck  the  ship  broke  in  two  at  the  bunkers.  The 
boat  was  lowered,  and  the  whole  of  the  crew  made  a  jump 
for  it.  Some  missed,  and  as  the  boat  was  swung  to  and 
fro  by  the  waves  she  jammed  the  unfortunate  men  against 


SHIPS    THAT    MAKE    FEW   PORTS        211 

the  side  of  the  ship.  The  survivors  contrived  to  get  ashore, 
made  their  way  to  Vigo,  and  thence  were  shipped  home. 
The  narrator  of  the  story  considered  the  episode  quite  an 
everyday  affair,  and  once  he  touched  the  home  port  he 
bustled  round  to  find  another  berth. 

The  crew  of  the  Kinkora  had  an  adventure  such  as  is 
seldom  heard,  but  which  eclipses  the  most  brilliant 
imagination  of  the  novelist.  She  loaded  up  at  Vancouver 
with  a  heavy  consignment  of  lumber  for  London,  and  a 
large  deck  load  was  carried  into  the  bargain.  When  well 
out  in  the  Pacific  she  sprung  a  leak,  and  although  the 
pumps  were  manned  and  the  crew  stuck  bravely  to  the 
superhuman  task  for  several  days,  they  could  not  keep  the 
water  down.  It  gained  upon  them  steadily  as  they  weak- 
ened under  the  effects  of  fatigue  and  exhaustion,  and 
at  last  they  went  to  the  captain  and  declined  to  pump  any 
longer,  as  they  were  played  out.  The  captain  suggested 
that  the  deck  load  should  be  thrown  overboard  to  ease  the 
position  somewhat,  but  the  proposal  was  of  no  avail.  At 
the  time  Clipperton  Island  was  the  nearest  land,  and  the 
skipper  promised  to  head  there  if  the  crew  would  resume 
their  tasks  at  the  pumps.  They  agreed,  but  to  their  dismay, 
when  the  steam  pump  was  brought  into  action  once  more, 
the  crown  of  the  boiler  burst,  and  it  was  rendered  useless. 

Clipperton  Island  was  gained,  and  with  infinite  difficulty 
a  landing  was  effected.  Then  it  was  found  that  they  had 
exchanged  one  peril  for  another.  They  were  faced  with 
starvation,  and  could  not  be  assisted  very  tangibly  by  the 
three  men  dwelling  on  the  island  engaged  in  mining  the 
phosphate.  As  a  vessel  was  not  expected  for  several 
months,  the  captain  with  his  twenty-three  men  decided  to 
make  a  desperate  effort  to  reach  Acapulco  in  Mexico  in  the 
two  lifeboats.  It  was  a  fearful  journey,  entailing  a  pull  of 
700  miles  across  a  wicked  piece  of  sea.  However,  they 
started  off,  only  to  meet  a  fresh  adversity  at  the  outset. 
One  boat  was  smashed  while  being  launched.  This  meant 
that  some  of  the  men  would  have  to  be  left  behind,  and 
volunteers  were  called  for  the  second  boat. 


212     STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

The  party  put  off,  expecting  to  take  twelve  days  on  the 
long  pull.  Water  was  their  greatest  anxiety,  but  they  were 
somewhat  relieved  under  this  heading,  as  for  the  first  six 
nights  out  it  rained  in  torrents,  to  the  full  fury  of  which 
they  were  exposed.  During  the  day  the  sun  was  intensely 
hot,  and  they  suffered  fearfully,  while  dangers  of  being 
swamped  and  capsized  had  to  be  avoided  every  minute. 
For  sixteen  days  they  drove  ahead  without  seeing  a  vessel, 
except  on  the  day  before  they  reached  Acapulco,  when  a 
stream  of  smoke  was  descried  in  the  far  distance.  It  proved 
to  be  H.M.S.  Amphion,  which  left  Acapulco  the  day  before 
they  arrived.  When  they  landed  the  men  could  not  stand, 
being  doubled  up  with  cramp  from  their  tight  positions  in 
the  boat.  A  wire  was  sent  to  England  urging  assistance  to 
be  sent  to  Clipperton  Island  to  succour  the  other  survivors. 
H.M.S.  Comus  was  dispatched  post-haste  from  Victoria, 
B.C.,  to  the  island,  and  picked  up  the  rest  of  the  crew, 
after  they  had  been  marooned  for  forty  days. 

Similar  stories  of  the  sea  associated  with  the  tramp, 
some  of  which  make  the  blood  run  cold,  may  be  related 
without  end.  Yet,  curiously  enough,  despite  the  hazardous 
character  of  the  work  and  the  hard,  grinding  life  without 
a  shred  of  comfort,  one  and  all  associated  with  the  tramp 
have  a  supreme  contempt  for  the  mighty,  comfortable  liner. 
They  prefer  the  roving  life  to  one  of  flying  to  and  fro  over 
a  certain  stretch  of  sea  like  a  shuttle.  This  characteristic 
is  typical  of  the  average  British  mariner,  being  the  product 
of  centuries.  The  master  of  the  tramp  maintains  that  the 
captain  of  the  liner  is  no  navigator  :  he  simply  keeps  to 
a  track  as  if  it  were  marked  off  with  a  fence  on  either  side  ! 

Now  and  again  fortune  smiles  kindly  upon  the  master 
and  crew  of  the  tramp  by  placing  a  fine  piece  of  salvage 
in  their  way.  The  liner  Waikato  was  on  her  way  between 
the  Cape  and  New  Zealand,  when,  crash  !  her  propeller 
shaft  gave  way.  Being  only  a  single-screw  steamship,  she 
was  at  once  stricken  helpless,  and,  to  make  matters  more 
serious,  the  accident  happened  in  a  lonely  stretch  of  sea. 
Day  after  day  she  drifted,  without  seeing  the  sign  of  a 


SHIPS    THAT    MAKE    FEW   PORTS        213 

sail,  or  a  curl  of  smoke  from  the  funnels  of  a  steamer.  The 
mercantile  community  grew  anxious,  and  when  100  days 
passed  without  tidings  of  the  Waikato  she  was  given  up 
as  practically  lost.  On  the  hundred  and  second  day  after 
the  accident,  however,  the  tramp  Asloun,  which  was 
coming  up  from  one  of  the  little-known  ports  down  south, 
and  which  likewise  had  been  driven  out  of  her  course  by 
heavy  weather,  spoke  the  Waikato.  By  that  time  the  liner 
had  drifted  4000  miles.  The  Asloun  caught  hold  of  the 
lame  liner,  and  a  course  was  shaped  for  Fremantle,  which 
was  entered  safely  three  weeks  later.  As  nothing  had  been 
heard  of  the  Waikato  for  over  four  months,  her  safe  arrival 
caused  the  underwriters  to  breathe  freely,  since  they  were 
saved  a  heavy  disbursement  on  insurances,  while  the 
feelings  of  relatives  of  the  passengers  and  crew  may  be 
imagined.  The  liner  proved  a  rich  prize  for  the  humble 
tramp,  as  she  was  laden  with  a  cargo  valued  at  ;^  130,000, 
or  $650,000,  and  for  the  services  rendered  the  court  awarded 
the  Aslotm  the  sum  of  ;^  16,500  ($82,500),  for  division 
among  the  owners,  master  and  crew.  From  this  it  will 
be  seen  that  occasionally  the  tramp  steamer  makes  a  rich 
haul,  which  comes  as  a  welcome  interlude  in  the  usual  daily 
round  of  harassing  and  unremitting  toil. 


CHAPTER    XVI 

SALVAGE 

Probably  there  is  no  phase  of  marine  engineering  which 
is  so  full  of  romance  as  that  of  salvaging.  As  a  calling 
it  is  also  remunerative.  So  much  so  that  in  various  parts 
of  the  world,  organisations  have  been  established  which  do 
nothing  else  but  reclaim  wrecks.  They  are  equipped  with 
special  and  powerful  mechanical  appliances  to  facilitate  the 
peculiar  work,  and  retain  the  services  of  highly  skilled 
men  who  are  at  home  in  a  diver's  ungainly  suit,  and  who 
experience  no  more  difficulty  in  working  thirty  feet  below 
the  surface  of  the  sea  than  does  a  bricklayer  on  a  scaffold 
a  similar  distance  above  the  ground. 

The  salvor  is  as  confirmed  a  gambler  as  the  under- 
writer. He  is  prepared  to  complete  his  work  for  a  lump 
sum,  will  undertake  the  task  upon  a  certain  percentage  of 
the  value  reclaimed,  or  even  will  be  prepared  to  face  the 
uncertainties  on  the  basis  of  "no  cure,  no  pay."  The  latter 
is  the  biggest  gamble  of  all.  Tens  of  thousands  may  be 
expended  by  the  salvors  upon  a  task,  but  unless  they 
achieve  what  they  have  set  out  to  accomplish  they  receive 
no  remuneration.  It  is  certainly  a  speculative  proceeding, 
and  at  first  sight  appears  highly  attractive,  but  it  is  con- 
ducive to  the  infliction  of  more  damage  to  the  vessel  in 
the  efforts  to  get  her  afloat  than  she  is  worth.  In  this  case 
the  salvors  do  not  care  one  whit  what  they  do  so  long  as 
they  fulfil  their  part  of  the  contract — retrieve  the  vessel. 
It  is  like  tempting  a  body  of  firemen  with  a  rich  reward 
for  the  extinction  of  a  blazing  building  crammed  with 
goods  worth  a  million  sterling,  instead  of  a  percentage 
upon  the  value  of  the  goods  saved  undamaged.  The  fire 
can  be  put  out  provided  sufficient  water  is  brought  to  bear 
upon  it,  but  the  extinguishing  process  not  only  achieves 

214 


SALVAGE  215 

its  designed  end,  but  probably  reduces  the  unburnt  pro- 
portion to  valueless  pulp. 

So  far  as  Great  Britain  is  concerned,  no  encouragement 
was  extended  to  native  salvaging  ingenuity  until  a  few 
years  ago.  These  islands,  despite  the  overwhelming  pre- 
ponderance of  their  maritime  interests,  were  at  the  mercy  of 
foreign  organisations  for  the  salvaging  of  vessels,  to  the 
detriment  of  native  engineers.  Take  the  case  of  the  liner 
Paris.  She  got  jammed  inextricably  upon  the  Manacles. 
The  underwriters  were  faced  with  a  prodigious  loss. 
Immediately  after  the  wreck,  a  British  engineer,  Mr.  Henry 
Parker,  offered  to  get  her  afloat.  His  proposal  was 
accepted  on  the  condition  that,  if  he  had  any  doubt  as  to 
achieving  success,  he  should  return  to  London  at  once. 
The  engineer  accepted  the  terms,  and  was  forthwith  in- 
structed to  procure  the  appliances  he  required,  together 
with  the  services  of  necessary  divers.  He  was  then  asked 
when  he  could  proceed  to  the  wreck,  and  he  replied  as 
soon  as  he  could  get  a  Root's  Blower  with  a  fourteen-inch 
outlet,  or  delivery. 

The  engineer  reached  the  wreck  on  Friday,  June  2.  The 
Paris  had  got  into  an  awkward  position,  as  the  granite 
fangs  had  driven  clean  through  her  bottom  and  were  hold- 
ing her  fast.  When  he  stepped  on  deck  he  found  that 
little  damage  was  observable  around  her  top  sides,  that 
the  after  part  w^as  clear,  but  that  the  fore-peak  and  hold 
were  full  of  water.  Without  delay  he  sought  out  the  liner's 
chief  engineer,  and  found  that  there  were  air-pumps  aboard 
for  working  the  refrigerating  plant.  These  pumps  were 
connected  up  to  the  fore-peak,  which  was  entered  by  a 
diver,  and  were  set  to  work.  The  compressed  air  drove 
out  the  water  very  speedily,  exposing  the  rent  in  the  hull, 
the  dimensions  of  which  were  taken  by  the  diver.  Then  a 
plate  was  prepared  to  be  dropped  over  the  hole,  secured  in 
position  and  made  water-tight.  When  this  was  ready  the 
diver  re-entered  the  fore-peak  with  the  patch,  the  water  was 
driven  out,  the  cover  was  placed  over  the  w^ound,  made 
fast,  while  another  plate  was  added  in  a  bed  of  cement. 


2i6    STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST  OF   THE   WORLD 

The  air  pressure  was  kept  applied  until  the  cement  had 
hardened,  and  then  was  released.  The  patch  held,  and 
no  water  re-entered  the  space.  When  the  tide  rose  to  its 
full  height  the  repair  was  examined,  and  was  found  to  be 
holding  tightly  and  solidly. 

Meantime  the  engineer  had  instructed  the  foreman  ship- 
wright to  close  up  the  hatches  at  the  ceiling  level  of  the 
lower  hold,  which  was  just  free  of  water  at  low  tide.  He 
also  devised  an  air  trunk,  fashioned  from  planks  bolted 
together,  with  a  retaining  valve  on  the  under  side  of  the 
hatchway,  while  a  manhole  was  provided  to  permit  ingress 
and  egress  from  the  hold.  All  the  seams  were  rendered 
air-  and  water-tight  by  caulking.  The  Root's  Blower  was 
then  erected  and  attached  to  the  air  trunk  leading  into  the 
hold,  power  being  applied  through  a  belt  from  a  winch,  to 
which  the  salvor  attached  a  wooden  pulley  of  sufficient 
diameter  to  drive  the  blower  at  the  speed  required. 

On  the  day  that  Mr.  Parker  arrived  on  the  Paris,  the 
representatives  of  a  German  firm  of  salvors  appeared.  The 
fore-hold  of  the  ship  had  been  pierced  by  the  jagged  teeth 
of  the  Manacles,  and  as  the  latter  were  anxious  to  remove 
these  projections  by  blasting,  the  British  engineer  sanc- 
tioned the  proceeding. 

By  the  fourth  day  the  rock  had  been  removed,  the  Root's 
Blower  was  started  up,  and  the  air,  driven  into  the  confined 
space,  forced  out  the  water.  On  the  next  low  tide  the  hold 
was  found  to  be  quite  free — the  compressed  air  kept  the 
water  back.  The  critical  moment  had  arrived,  and  Mr. 
Parker  completed  his  arrangements  to  get  the  liner  free. 
On  the  rising  tide  the  blower  was  kept  going  at  full  speed, 
and  as  the  water  could  not  re-enter  the  ship,  owing  to  the 
greater  air  pressure  maintained  within  the  space,  the  vessel 
lifted  with  the  tide.  When  the  water  had  risen  to  its 
highest  level  the  Paris  was  afloat,  free  of  the  rocks  which 
had  held  her  so  firmly  a  prisoner.  Regaining  her  buoy- 
ancy, the  ship  slipped  aft  several  fathoms  and  changed  her 
position.  This  fact  was  proved  very  conclusively  by  the 
movement  of  her  compass. 


SALVAGE  217 

The  salvor,  elated  with  his  success,  which  had  coincided 
with  his  carefully  laid  plans,  was  about  to  send  for  a 
number  of  tugs  to  tow  the  Paris  into  Falmouth  on  the  next 
tide,  which  would  be  eighteen  inches  higher  than  that 
which  lifted  the  liner  free.  But,  to  his  intense  disgust, 
he  was  requested  by  the  special  agent  of  the  underwriters 
on  the  spot  to  return  to  London  immediately — the  contract 
had  been  awarded  to  the  rival  foreign  firm  on  the  "  no  cure, 
no  pay  "  system.  It  was  a  galling  position  for  the  British 
engineer.  He  had  accomplished  the  hardest  part  of  the 
task,  and  his  rivals  were  to  reap  the  rewards.  However, 
he  accepted  the  inevitable,  and  left  the  wreck,  to  receive 
recompense  for  the  work  he  had  carried  out. 

The  foreign  salvors  sought  to  improve  upon  the  British 
engineer,  but  failed  signally.  Instead  of  taking  the  Paris 
into  port  on  the  next  tide,  between  four  and  five  weeks 
elapsed  before  the  task  was  consummated.  By  the  time 
the  Paris  was  brought  into  port  she  had  suffered  extreme 
damage.  Hearty  congratulations  were  extended  by  the 
British  Press  upon  the  so-called  triumph  of  foreign  salvage 
engineers,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  Mr.  Henry  Parker, 
after  five  days  and  nights  of  incessant  labour,  had  the 
Paris  ready  for  moving  with  the  tide  on  the  evening  of 
June  7  !  This  offered  a  brilliant  illustration  of  the  truth 
of  the  axiom  about  changing  horses  in  the  middle  of  a 
stream,  for  which  the  underwriters  paid  very  dearly.  In 
those  days  British  salvage  engineering  was  at  a  discount 
in  comparison  with  so-called  German  skill.  Happily,  an 
opposite  state  of  affairs  prevails  to-day — British  engineers 
lead,  and  the  Germans  are  outclassed  hopelessly. 

Another  very  smart  salvage  achievement  was  completed 
by  a  Scottish  engineer,  Mr.  Thomas  Napier  Armit,  of 
Leith,  in  the  Bay  of  Gibraltar.  The  night  of  March  17, 
1891,  was  as  black  as  pitch,  and  a  heavy  gale  was  raging. 
The  Anchor  liner  Utopia  was  making  her  way  across  the 
bay  with  about  1000  people  on  board,  of  whom  a  large 
proportion  were  Italian  emigrants.  By  some  means  or 
other  she  was  carried  on  to  the  bows  of  H.M.S.  Anson, 


2i8    STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST  OF  THE   WORLD 

whose  heavy  ram  smashed  through  the  hull  of  the  steam- 
ship, tearing  a  terrible  rent,  and  sending  her  to  the  bottom 
with  some  600  souls. 

The  collision  caught  the  unlucky  liner  near  the  stern, 
so  that  the  bows  were  lifted  into  the  air  by  the  incoming 
water.  The  unfortunate  passengers  rushed  to  this  elevated 
position,  and  jumped  or  were  thrown  into  the  water  as  the 
liner  lurched.  Fortunately,  the  death-roll  was  minimised 
somewhat  by  the  smartness  of  the  crews  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean squadron  riding  at  anchor  in  the  bay,  although 
their  task  was  difficult,  owing  to  the  intense  blackness  of 
the  night  and  the  storm. 

When  morning  dawned  the  top  of  the  funnel  and  the 
mast  projected  mournfully  above  the  water,  showing  where 
the  liner  had  settled  down.  Divers  descended,  recovered 
a  large  number  of  bodies,  which  were  buried  ashore,  and 
found  also  that  the  Utopia  lay  in  56  feet  of  water  at  the 
stern,  43  feet  at  the  bows,  and  had  a  heavy  list.  The  ram 
of  the  warship  had  torn  a  gaping,  irregular  hole  26  feet 
long  by  15  feet  in  width,  and  had  crashed  through  the 
shell,  bulkheads  and  engines  as  if  they  were  paper,  without 
suffering  the  slightest  injury  herself. 

The  position  of  the  sunken  liner  constituted  a  serious 
menace  to  navigation,  and  the  problem  of  her  removal  was 
discussed  at  once.  Seeing  her  comparatively  shallow 
position,  the  problem  of  raising  her  naturally  occupied 
attention.  A  famous  continental  firm  of  salvage  engineers 
expressed  their  willingness  to  lift  her,  but  demanded  from 
nine  to  twelve  months  for  the  job.  Mr.  Armit,  who  had 
previously  accomplished  some  smart  performances  in  this 
field,  telegraphed  from  Leith  that  he  would  take  the  work  in 
hand,  and  get  her  to  the  surface  within  a  few  weeks.  His 
offer  was  accepted,  and  he  set  to  work. 

This  engineer  proposed  to  adopt  the  coffer-dam  process, 
which  he  had  used  so  brilliantly  in  salvaging  the  Austral, 
which  foundered  in  Sydney  harbour.  This  constitutes  the 
erection  of  a  massive  timber  wall,  or  falsework,  upon  and 
extending  from  the  deck  of  the  submerged  steamer  to  the 


VAX'.'''''- 


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SALVAGE  219 

water-level,  and  then  removing  the  water  from  within  the 
enclosed  space,  after  the  rent  is  closed,  by  the  aid  of 
pumps.  As  time  was  of  primary  importance,  the  engineer 
decided  upon  a  novel  method  of  clamping  the  timber 
superstructure  to  the  bulwarks  of  the  wreck,  instead  of 
drilling  holes  and  bolting  the  fabric  to  the  hull  with  bolts 
— a  very  tedious  and  exacting  task  under  water.  Without 
visiting  the  wreck,  but  acting  purely  upon  telegraphic 
information,  the  coffer-dam  was  prepared  in  Glasgow  and 
dispatched  to  the  wreck  within  ten  days — a  smart  achieve- 
ment in  itself. 

The  coffer-dam  was  a  formidable  and  substantial  piece  of 
work.  The  wooden  baulks  were  set  up  vertically,  and  then 
braced  and  supported  by  diagonal,  transverse  and  side 
beams  to  secure  rigidity.  Some  idea  of  their  bulk,  size 
and  weight  may  be  gathered  from  the  fact  that  each  piece 
of  oak  measured  6  inches  thick,  except  at  the  stern,  where 
they  were  of  7  inches.  This  timber  wall  was  carried  for 
a  length  of  310  feet  along  either  bulwark  of  the  vessel, 
across  the  deck  at  the  bow,  and  around  and  to  the  curve 
of  the  stern.  The  latter  was  the  most  massive  and  strongly 
built  part  of  the  whole  fabric.  This  superstructure  had  to 
be  erected  under  water  by  divers,  and  the  task,  owing  to 
the  strong  currents  and  exposure  to  south-west  winds,  was 
by  no  means  easy,  especially  as  the  longest  oak  baulks 
ran  to  about  26  feet  in  length.  Work  was  carried  out 
continuously  night  and  day,  until  at  last  the  vessel  was 
provided  with  a  stout  wooden  casing  13  feet  high  at  the 
bows  and  24  feet  in  height  at  the  stern. 

A  temporary  deck  was  laid  upon  the  upper  surface  of 
this  coffer-dam,  to  afford  foundation  for  the  powerful 
Gwynne  centrifugal  pumps — these  appliances  are  indis- 
pensable to  the  salvage  engineer,  and  therewith  many 
remarkable  achievements  have  been  put  on  record  in  con- 
nection with  wreck-raising — for  emptying  the  enclosed 
space.  The  breach  made  by  the  warship's  ram  was  covered 
with  a  massive  patch,  wrought  of  oak  baulks  bolted  together 
and  rendered  water-tight  with  canvas  and  other  material. 


220    STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST  OF  THE   WORLD 

When  all  was  ready  the  battery  of  pumps  was  set  going. 
The  water  was  ejected  at  the  rate  of  70  tons — 15,680  gallons 
— per  minute.  In  the  course  of  an  hour  the  vessel  slowly 
returned  to  her  upright  position.  The  bay  was  dotted 
with  boat-loads  of  spectators,  while  the  shore  was  thickly 
packed  with  dense  masses  of  people  following  a  novel  spec- 
tacle, and  the  first  fruits  of  success  were  hailed  with  much 
cheering.  The  pumps  were  kept  going  with  monotonous 
regularity,  and  by  the  time  that  some  750,000  gallons  of 
water  had  been  removed  from  within  the  hull  the  wreck, 
with  its  superstructure,  began  to  rise.  When  the  top  deck 
emerged  above  the  water  the  superstructure  was  de- 
molished, while  at  the  same  time  tugs  caught  hold  of  the 
wreck  and  hauled  her  into  shallower  water,  this  process 
being  repeated  as  the  hull  rose  higher  and  higher,  until 
the  refloated  Utopia  was  beached  upon  a  shoal.  Here  the 
vessel  was  pumped  out  completely,  and  presented  a  weird 
appearance.  The  decks,  cabins  and  saloons  were  draped 
with  seaweed  and  encrusted  with  other  marine  growths, 
which  had  assumed  fantastic  forms.  The  decomposition 
of  the  cargo  and  the  bodies  of  luckless  passengers  and  crew 
still  imprisoned  on  board  rendered  the  task  ghastly  and 
nauseating  to  the  salvors,  and  order  was  given  to  flush  the 
ship  out  from  stem  to  stern.  Then  the  corpses  were 
recovered,  in  advanced  stages  of  decay,  and,  being  trans- 
ported to  the  middle  of  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  were 
re-committed  to  the  deep  with  every  ceremonial. 

The  salvage  was  a  complete  success  in  every  respect, 
but  the  most  outstanding  feature  was  the  celerity  with 
which  it  was  accomplished.  From  the  day  Mr.  Armit 
received  instructions  to  go  ahead  until  the  Utopia  was 
beached  high  and  dry  only  two  months  had  elapsed.  Bear- 
ing in  mind  the  size  of  the  vessel,  and  the  difficulties  of  the 
work,  this  ranked  as  an  unparalleled  achievement  at  the 
time,  and  certainly  constituted  one  of  the  cheapest  instances 
of  salvage  work  on  record. 

The  remarkable  recovery  of  one-half  of  the  Suevic— the 
after  part,  with  all  machinery— is  still  fresh  in  the  public 


SALVAGE  221 

mind.  This  liner  got  astride  the  dreaded  rocks  off  Corn- 
wjall,  with  a  cargo  of  rabbits  and  other  frozen  meat  valued 
at  ^140,000  ($700,000).  Her  bows  were  entangled  hope- 
lessly with  the  rocky  teeth,  so  she  was  cut  in  twain  with 
dynamite,  the  after  part  was  brought  to  Southampton,  a 
new  bow  was  built  and  fitted,  and  to-day  the  Suevic  is 
running  as  well  as  ever  between  Great  Britain  and  the 
Antipodes.  It  was  a  smart  piece  of  work,  but  was  deprived 
of  its  novelty,  as  the  salvors,  the  Liverpool  Salvage 
Association,  had  previously  accomplished  a  similar  and 
more  brilliant  feat. 

The  Milwaukee,  of  7,317  tons,  built  by  Swan,  Hunter,  & 
Wigham  Richardson  on  the  Tyne,  was  making  her  way 
round  the  north  of  Scotland,  en  route  to  New  Orleans,  in 
ballast.  She  was  one  of  the  crack  trans-Atlantic  freighters 
of  her  owners,  being  470  feet  long  by  56  feet  beam  and 
3 if  feet  deep.  She  got  out  of  her  course,  and  finally  came 
to  grief  on  the  cruel  rocks  at  Port  Errol,  near  Peterhead. 
It  was  about  as  luckless  a  place  in  which  to  become  stranded 
as  could  be  conceived,  as  the  wreck  was  exposed  to  the 
full  force  of  the  gales  coming  from  the  north-east,  east 
and  south-east.  The  weather  was  rough,  and  her  nose  was 
being  pinched  as  if  in  a  vice;  she  bumped  heavily.  The 
engineers  of  the  Liverpool  Salvage  Association  arrived 
promptly  on  the  scene,  and  saw  at  once  that  she  was  im- 
possible of  complete  recovery.  Haste  was  everything,  as 
the  dreaded  equinox  was  approaching.  The  after-part, 
containing  the  machinery,  was  perfect,  so  without  more 
ado  the  salvors  decided  to  cut  her  in  twain.  A  string  of 
dynamite  cartridge,  enclosed  in  rubber  tubes,  was  passed 
round  the  ship  just  forward  of  the  bridge.  The  method 
adopted  was  to  protect  the  bulkhead  at  this  point  from  the 
effects  of  the  explosions,  although  allowing  them  to  accom- 
plish their  designed  function.  The  task,  owing  to  its 
novelty  and  delicacy,  occupied  many  anxious  days,  but  at 
last  the  stern,  with  the  machinery,  fell  back  from  the  180 
feet  length  of  the  fore  part  into  deep  water,  after  520 
pounds  of  explosives  had  been  used. 


222     STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST  OF   THE   WORLD 

The  salvors  were  somewhat  pprehensive  about  the 
stability  and  strength  of  the  bulkhead,  upon  which  success 
depended.  They  feared  that  directly  this  protective  wall 
was  exposed  to  the  full  pressure  of  open  water  it  would 
collapse.  There  was  also  the  danger  that  the  disturbance 
of  the  vessel's  equilibrium  by  being  cut  in  half  might 
cause  her  to  heel  over.  The  builders  were  confident  of 
their  handiwork,  and  expressed  the  opinion  that  the  bulk- 
head would  withstand  the  pressure  imposed.  The  salvors 
had  occasion  to  appreciate  the  fact  that  the  Milwaukee  was 
built  very  stoutly,  as  they  had  to  use  140  pounds  of 
dynamite  to  bisect  the  keelson.  Calculations  showed  how 
the  vessel  might  retain  her  stability  after  being  severed, 
and  arrangements  to  this  end  were  made. 

The  peculiar  operation  was  completely  successful.  The 
results  were  exactly  as  anticipated.  The  stern,  upon 
recovery,  was  picked  up  by  tugs  and  towed  stern  first  back 
to  her  builders'  yards  in  the  Tyne,  the  dismembered  vessel 
actually  assisting  in  the  task  by  her  own  power,  the  screw, 
as  the  stern  now  became  the  bow,  revolving  in  the  reverse 
direction.  Upon  reaching  the  Tyne  the  fore  part  was 
restored,  as  explained  in  the  chapter  dealing  with  Steam- 
ship Surgery.  This  was  the  most  marvellous  instance  of 
salvage  up  to  this  time,  and  accordingly,  when  the  Liver- 
pool Salvage  Association  found  the  Suevic  in  a  similar 
plight,  they  repeated  the  process.  In  both  instances  the 
severed  bow  was  abandone'd  upon  the  rocks,  to  be  pounded 
into  fragments  by  the  angry  seas. 

The  recovery  of  the  steamship  Netherton  was  a  smart 
undertaking  of  another  description.  This  boat  was  laden 
with  a  cargo  of  benzine  in  her  fore-hold.  Every  one  is 
acquainted  with  the  highly  explosive  character  of  petrol, 
and  its  transport  in  bulk  demands  elaborate  precautions  in 
the  interests  of  safety.  The  Netherton  was  traversing  the 
China  seas  when  she  blew  up.  The  effects  of  the  explosion 
were  extraordinary.  A  stately  steamship  was  turned  into 
a  tangled  mass  of  scrap-steel  as  if  by  magic.  The  steel 
sides  of  the  ship  were  not  wrenched  open,  as  might  be 


m 


A   DIFFICLLT    TASK 

The  Ilypntia  heeled  over  and  sank.     The  salvors,  with  their  powerful  appliances,  lifted  her  up. 
This  picture  shows  her  coming  to  an  even  keel. 


A    DOUBLE    DISASTER 

Dahomey  ran  ashore  off  the  .\nglesey  coast  and  then  caught  tire.     The  above  photo 
shows  the  engineers  of  the  Liverpool  Salvage  .Association  recovering  the  ship, 
and  the  pumps  discharging  the  water  from  within  tlie  hull. 


Ti;.Mi\M<Ai<N    i;ri;ctkin'  of  the  s)-i;ii.  on  thk  cLvni-: 

When  put  togetlitr,  all  jiarts  were  given  an  identification  mark.     Tlie  ship  was  disnianlled, 
and  transported  in  pieces  to  I',L;:inda. 


RK-i-.RKi.  riNt;    rm-:  smr  .w    vokt  i"i.ori:nck 

A  slip  was  prel)ared  on  tlie  shores  of  Lake  Xyan/:i,  and  the  parts  -,,rte(l  .iUt  and  reassendileii. 

SHIPIU'ILDIXC,    I\    CKXTRAL    AFRICA 


SALVAGE  223 

supposed,  but  were  buckled  inwards ;  the  decks  were  trans- 
formed into  utter  chaos.  She  was  brought  into  Singapore 
a  hopeless  wreck,  and  there  abandoned,  as  she  was  not 
considered  to  be  worth  repair. 

However,  a  north  of  England  firm,  Messrs.  W.  H. 
Loveridge  &  Company,  of  West  Hartlepool,  thought  there 
was  every  prospect  of  restoring  the  Netherton  to  her 
original  serviceability,  and  accordingly  bought  her  up 
practically  at  a  scrap-heap  price.  They  sent  out  an 
experienced  marine  surveyor,  Mr.  Russell,  to  bring  her 
home  if  he  could.  The  engineer  proceeded  to  Singapore, 
and  found  the  wreck  everything  that  had  been  pictured. 
Parts  of  her  hull  had  caved  in  to  such  an  extent  that  a  man 
could  stand  upon  it.  Forward,  from  amidships  she  was  a 
heterogeneous  mass  of  twisted  steel,  and  she  was  filled  to 
a  depth  of  some  five  feet  with  rain-water.  This  was 
pumped  out,  and  then  Mr.  Russell  devised  an  inexpensive 
though  substantial  scheme  of  temporary  repair.  In  order 
to  strengthen  the  shattered  hull,  a  girder  was  run  forward 
from  amidships  on  either  side  and  secured  to  the  fabric  by 
heavy  struts.  The  decks,  demolished  by  the  force  of  the 
explosion,  were  replaced  by  heavy  wooden  planking, 
covered  with  a  layer  of  canvas,  so  as  to  render  it  as  water- 
tight as  possible.  As  the  ship  might  meet  adverse  weather 
on  her  homeward  journey,  a  powerful  pump  was  rigged 
up,  to  cope  with  any  water  that  might  find  an  entrance 
when  an  unfriendly  wave  crept  aboard. 

The  boilers  were  tested  and  found  serviceable,  while  the 
engines  proved  to  be  in  good  condition.  But  all  the  copper 
piping  in  the  machine-room  was  gone.  The  natives  had 
improved  the  shining  hour  by  creeping  aboard  the  shat- 
tered hulk  as  she  lay  neglected  in  the  roads,  and  had  stolen 
every  inch  of  bright  metal  upon  which  they  could  lay 
their  hands.  Copper  being  an  expensive  commodity  in 
Singapore,  the  engineer  made  shift  with  iron  piping  so  far 
as  practicable,  only  resorting  to  the  more  expensive  metal 
whenever  compelled. 

Within  about  a  month  after  his  arrival  upon  the  scene 


224    STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST  OF   THE   WORLD 

the  Netherton  was  in  a  fit  state  to  proceed  to  sea.  The 
boilers  were  fired,  and  on  a  trial  trip  the  vessel  notched  a 
speed  of  seven  and  a  half  knots  per  hour.  As  the  under- 
water part  of  the  ship  was  thickly  encrusted  with  marine 
growth,  the  salvage  engineer  had  her  bottom  cleaned,  but 
he  did  not  incur  the  prohibitive  costs  of  a  dry-dock  for  the 
purpose.  He  sought  the  services  of  a  gang  of  Malay 
divers,  and  they  accomplished  the  task  to  his  satisfaction. 
As  the  trial  trip  had  demonstrated  the  serviceability  of  the 
engines,  the  surveyor  decided  to  come  home  under  his  own 
steam,  notwithstanding  that  he  was  faced  with  some  for- 
bidding stretches  of  sea.  A  crew  was  engaged  forthwith, 
and  as  the  register  of  the  ship  had  been  cancelled,  the 
salvor  had  to  secure  a  temporary  pass  from  the  Government 
of  the  Straits  Settlements  in  order  to  bring  her  home, 
which,  after  an  inspection  to  decide  her  seaworthiness,  was 
granted. 

The  salvage  engineer  is  possessed  of  dogged  persever- 
ance, and  his  ingenuity  is  illimitable.  A  sunken  vessel  is 
an  awkward  mass  to  lift  to  the  water-level,  especially  when 
currents  run  strongly,  or  when  the  position  is  exposed,  and 
the  sea-bed  uninviting,  with  slippery  rock  or  soft,  shifting 
sand.  The  diver  is  his  right-hand  man,  whose  work  is 
laborious,  thrilling,  adventurous  and  often  very  danger- 
ous. It  may  be  that  operations  down  below  can  only  be 
squeezed  into  the  brief  interval  when  the  water  is  running 
slack  at  lowest  tide.  Then  the  diver  has  to  toil  with 
feverish  speed  to  make  the  utmost  of  the  handful  of  minutes 
at  his  disposal. 

The  Liverpool  Salvage  Association  was  confronted  with 
a  pretty  problem  in  connection  with  the  French  steamer 
Canton,  of  3,721  tons.  She  was  dispatched  to  the  East, 
and  with  several  hundred  soldiers  on  board  she  struck  a 
rock.  The  captain,  to  avoid  a  holocaust,  made  a  gigantic 
effort  to  beach  her,  as  the  water  poured  into  her  bows.  He 
succeeded  in  his  purpose,  but  the  ship  got  into  an  uncom- 
fortable position,  where  she  laid  until  she  was  sunk  by  the 
north-west  monsoon.     Time  after  time  the  French  battle- 


SALVAGE  225 

ships  in  the  China  seas  sought  to  refloat  her,  but  without 
avail,  and  at  last  abandoned  their  attempts.  The  under- 
writers in  Paris,  however,  did  not  feel  disposed  to  write  the 
ship  off  as  a  total  loss,  so  enlisted  the  services  of  the 
Liverpool  salvage  engineers.  Captain  Batchelor  had  pre- 
viously pleased  the  French  underwriters  by  bringing  home 
the  wrecked  transport  Rhine,  and  they  felt  that  he  would 
be  able  to  do  something  with  the  Canton.  He  hurried  out 
to  Singapore  with  a  diver  and  assistant,  two  engineers  and 
two  firemen,  together  with  a  couple  of  lo-inch  pumps.  A 
coasting  steamer  was  chartered  for  the  work,  and  steamed 
to  the  wreck,  1,100  miles  away.  They  got  hold  of  the 
wreck,  to  find  that  she  had  rolled  over  on  to  her  damaged 
side,  and  had  a  wound  measuring  30  feet  by  6  feet,  torn 
and  jagged  in  the  most  remarkable  manner,  with  the  fear- 
ful edges  pointing  outwards.  The  ugly  masses  of  project- 
ing steel  were  trimmed  back  with  dynamite,  and  a  massive 
patch  of  timber  was  fashioned  and  laid  over  the  rent,  with 
a  canvas  bolster  filled  with  oakum  forming  the  joint,  to 
secure  water-tightness.  When  the  pumps  were  set  to  work 
the  vessel  soon  came  to  the  surface,  was  towed  into  Singa- 
pore, and  there  repaired. 

The  Clan  Grant  offered  the  engineers  of  this  organisa- 
tion some  anxious  moments.  She  was  360  feet  long  and 
of  3>950  tons,  and  came  to  grief  in  an  embrace  with 
another  vessel  off  Holyhead.  The  engineers  got  hold  of 
her,  and  the  ragged  edges  of  the  wound,  which  projected 
for  some  6  feet  around  an  irregular  hole  measuring  17  feet 
deep  by  10  feet  wide,  were  cut  back  with  charges  of  blast- 
ing gelatine,  placed  in  canisters,  and  surrounded  by  india- 
rubber  cases  bedded  in  china  clay  against  the  steel.  In 
this  case  extreme  care  had  to  be  taken  to  localise  the 
effects  of  the  explosion,  as  only  14  feet  away  was  the 
engine-room  bulkhead,  which  had  already  suffered  from  the 
collision,  and  the  engineers  did  not  desire  to  weaken  it 
further.  A  wooden  patch  was  placed  over  the  hole,  and 
the  ship,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  rent,  had  her  hull  strength- 
ened by  the  introduction  of  heavy  girders  26  feet  long. 
Q 


226    STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST  OF  THE   WORLD 

All  this  work  had  to  be  carried  out  by  divers,  and  progress 
was  slow,  owing  to  the  peculiar  difficulties.  When  all  was 
made  fast  the  pumps  were  set  to  work,  the  ship  was  pumped 
dry,  and  was  headed  towards  Liverpool. 

At  times  the  engineer  sets  to  work  to  lift  the  wreck 
bodily.  This  was  the  case  with  the  Sarah  Brongh,  which 
went  to  the  bottom  also  off  Holyhead.  Four  massive  cables 
were  dragged  beneath  the  wreck,  and  spaced  at  regular 
intervals.  When  the  tide  had  receded  two  pontoons  were 
brought  up  and  moored  alongside  the  wreck  on  either 
hand.  The  pontoon  is  a  rectangular  receptacle  of  strong 
construction,  which,  being  filled  with  air,  is  naturally 
buoyant,  and,  moreover,  possesses  great  lifting  power, 
according  to  its  dimensions.  The  ends  of  the  four  cables 
were  fixed  to  these  pontoons.  As  the  tide  flowed,  the 
pontoons  naturally  rose  with  it,  lifting  the  vessel  off  the 
bottom.  As  the  wreck  was  swung  clear  of  the  sea-bed, 
tugs  caught  hold  of  her,  and  very  slowly  hauled  her  shore- 
wards,  until  she  grounded.  Then  a  pause  was  made,  and 
the  process  repeated  with  the  next  low  tide.  Rising  water 
again  lifted  the  wreck,  and  enabled  her  to  be  worked  into 
still  siiallower  water.  This  cycle  of  operations  was  con- 
tinued until,  after  five  lifts  had  been  made,  she  was  dropped 
in  a  position  which  left  her  high  and  dry  when  the  tide 
had  ebbed. 

In  some  instances,  if  the  vessel  is  irretrievable,  it  is 
possible  to  reduce  the  underwriting  losses  by  salving  the 
cargo,  particularly  if  it  is  of  an  imperishable  and  valuable 
character.  This  was  the  case  with  the  Oceana,  which  was 
sent  to  the  bottom  off  Beachy  Head  after  smashing  into  the 
wind-jammer  Pisagua.  The  liner  carried  bullion  to  the 
value  of  ^'750,000,  or  $3,750,000,  in  bars  of  silver  and  gold, 
as  well  as  a  consignment  of  ivory.  The  wreck  was  in  a 
badly  exposed  position,  so  much  so  that  often  for  days 
the  divers  were  unable  to  venture  below,  while  under  the 
best  conditions  they  could  not  remain  long  on  the  wreck, 
with  a  pressure  of  45  pounds — three  times  that  of  the 
air  above — bearing  upon  every  square  inch  of  the  body. 


SALVAGE  227 

At  times  the  currents  were  so  swift  that  the  divers  were  in 
danger  of  being  swept  off  their  feet,  while  the  ghostly  form 
of  the  vessel  was  wrapped  almost  in  utter  darkness. 

Diver  Lambert  was  entrusted  with  the  task  of  wresting 
this  wealth  from  the  deep  by  the  Liverpool  Salvage 
Association.  He  was  so  persistent  and  successful  in  his 
work  that  he  recovered  practically  the  whole  of  the  bullion. 
It  was  no  easy  task  groping  through  the  bowels  of  the 
liner,  90  feet  below  the  surface,  swinging  about  the  bars 
of  gold  and  silver,  since  they  ranged  from  80  pounds 
upwards  in  weight  apiece.  The  bullion  was  hoisted  aboard 
the  special  salvage  steamer  Ranger,  which  served  as  the 
depot  for  operations.  In  the  course  of  10  weeks  the  men 
working  on  the  sea-bed  were  able  to  put  in  only  about  60 
hours'  work  all  told,  but  they  went  at  the  job  with  such  a 
will  that  when  the  conditions  were  favourable  they  retrieved 
the  treasure-trove  at  the  rate  of  ;^  12,500  ($62,500)  per  hour. 
The  task  was  completed  without  the  slightest  mishap,  and 
it  is  computed  that  the  salvors  reaped  about  ^60,000 — 
$300,000 — out  of  the  transaction,  while  the  feat  ranks  as 
the  most  imposing  of  its  class  in  salvage  records. 

The  recovery  of  the  Callerthurn  gold  was  even  more 
sensational  and  exciting,  although  it  did  not  represent 
such  a  huge  sum  in  the  aggregate  as  that  of  the  Oceana. 
This  steamer  left  Sydney  on  August  7,  1895,  for  China. 
She  had  scarcely  got  clear  of  the  harbour  when  she  was 
overwhelmed  by  a  storm,  was  driven  on  to  the  Seal  Rocks, 
and  lost.  She  had  ;^io,ooo,  or  $50,000,  in  gold,  stowed 
away  in  a  tank  beneath  the  floor  of  the  chart-room.  The 
underwriters  resolved  to  see  whether  their  losses  might  not 
be  mitigated  by  the  recovery  of  this  specie.  Accordingly, 
two  vessels  were  sent  out  to  find  the  wreck,  with  two  divers 
— William  May  and  Arthur  Briggs — aboard.  After  con- 
siderable groping  the  wreck  was  picked  up  in  a  depth  of 
about  180  feet.  Diver  Briggs  made  tiiree  descents  to  144 
feet,  the  first  two  efforts  being  abortive,  but  on  the  third 
attempt  he  descried  the  wreck  standing  out  like  a  grisly 
phantom  in  a  dense  fog.     He  could  not  reach  her,  as  his 

Q2 


228    STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST  OF  THE   WORLD 

diving  gear  was  not  made  for  the  greater  depth,  so  the 
salvors  returned  to  Sydney  to  await  the  arrival  of  improved 
diving  gear  from  London. 

The  depth  of  the  water  was  against  the  divers,  as  it 
involved  withstanding  a  pressure  of  some  90  pounds  per 
square  inch  when  on  the  deck  of  the  wreck.  The  under- 
writers were  resolved  to  run  no  risks,  so  the  divers  were 
sent  down  to  a  corresponding  depth  outside  Sydney  Har- 
bour, to  demonstrate  that  they  could  withstand  the  pressure 
without  suffering  any  ill-effects. 

The  salvage  vessels  then  sailed  for  the  wreck,  which  they 
had  marked  with  a  buoy.  Briggs  went  down  first,  followed 
by  his  colleague.  A  cursory  inspection  convinced  them 
that  they  would  have  to  work  quickly,  as  the  vessel  was 
tumbling  to  pieces  rapidly.  The  rigging  was  rotting,  the 
funnel  was  lying  lengthwise  on  the  crumbling  deck,  the 
topmasts  were  gone,  and  the  vessel  was  flattening  out  like 
a  pancake,  under  disintegration  and  the  pressure.  The 
divers  found  it  difficult  to  keep  their  feet,  as  the  tide  and 
currents  ran  at  about  five  miles  an  hour.  They  reached 
the  chart-room,  found  the  door  torn  from  its  hinges,  and 
the  floor  under  which  the  specie  was  concealed  breaking 
up.  Marine  growths  infested  the  hull  thickly  on  every 
hand,  imparting  a  most  forlorn  and  dismal  aspect  to  the 
wreck. 

It  was  some  time  before  salvage  could  commence,  as 
stress  of  weather  repeatedly  drove  the  salvors  to  port.  In 
one  gale  the  locating  buoy  got  adrift,  and  many  weary 
hours  were  spent  groping  anew  for  the  wTeck.  A  supply 
of  dynamite  was  brought  up,  the  obstacles  to  the  specie- 
room  were  blown  away,  and  just  as  the  divers  were  about 
to  probe  for  the  gold,  the  urgent  signal  to  come  up  was 
sounded.  The  clerk  of  the  weather  was  intervening  once 
more,  and  he  delayed  operations  for  a  solid  month. 

It  was  an  eerie  sensation  working  at  a  depth  of  160  feet 
in  the  ocean.  The  loneliness  was  one  that  could  be  felt. 
The  divers  had  one  or  two  companions  down  below  with 
them,  one  of  which  was  by  no  means  welcomed.     This  was 


SALVAGE  229 

a  shark,  who  had  entered  into  occupation  of  a  space  on 
the  deck  near  the  chart-room.  Time  after  time  the  monster 
brushed  his  tail  against  the  divers,  but  did  not  display  any 
tendency  to  investigate  closely  the  men  in  the  strange 
helmets.  He  left  them  alone.  This  w^as  more  than  could 
be  said  for  others  of  the  submarine  population,  as  some 
of  these  deep-sea  inhabitants  enjoyed  nibbling  pieces  out 
of  the  men's  hands  while  they  worked. 

Lively  times  w-ere  encountered  in  hoisting  the  treasure 
to  the  surface  when  it  was  recovered.  The  bullion  was  not 
in  bars,  but  in  coin,  and  the  wooden  boxes  containing  the 
hoards  threatened  to  collapse,  owing  to  advanced  decay. 
One  consignment  of  ^5000  ($25,000)  came  up  in  a  single 
box  after  breaking  away  from  the  hoisting  rope  five  times. 
The  divers  suffered  severely  from  the  strain  and  pressure. 
May  towards  the  end  show-ed  signs  of  collapse.  They 
retrieved  in  all  £y,g^^,  or  $39,720.  The  underwriters 
expressed  themselves  so  satisfied  with  this  success  that 
they  declined  to  permit  the  divers  to  incur  further  risks  in 
searching  for  the  balance.  One  of  the  Chinese  passengers 
who  was  drowned  was  said  to  have  taken  a  nest-egg  of 
;^2000  f$  10,000)  on  board  with  him,  but  this  treasure- 
trove  was  disregarded.  The  divers  received  the  sum  of 
^1,191  125.,  or  $5,958,  representing  15  per  cent,  of  the 
value  recovered,  between  them  as  a  reward  for  their  labours, 
while  the  total  salvage  expenses  represented  about  45  per 
cent,  of  this  value. 

Another  smart  feat  was  in  connection  with  the  steamship 
Cyril.  She  sank  into  the  bed  of  the  Amazon  with  rubber 
worth  ^110,000,  or  $550,000,  aboard.  Seeing  that  the 
wreck  was  in  120  feet  of  water,  the  chances  of  salving  the 
cargo  were  considered  very  slender,  but  the  salvage  steamer 
Ranger  went  out  to  South  America  with  her  divers  and 
other  plant,  picked  up  the  vessel,  and  the  divers  descended 
into  her  holds.  Once  the  cargo  was  reached  it  was  hauled  to 
the  surface  with  astonishing  rapidity,  and  the  salvors  did 
not  leave  the  wreck  until  they  had  brought  more  than 
;^ioo,oo(3  ($500,000)  worth  of  the  rubber  to  the  surface. 


230    STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST  OF   THE   WORLD 

At  times  the  salvage  of  a  wreck  defies  the  most  perfect 
of  appHances,  ingenuity  and  determination.  The  Wick 
Bay  was  a  case  in  point.  She  was  sucked  down  by  the 
treacherous  sands  of  the  Wash  off  Lynn  early  in  the 
'nineties  of  the  last  century.  Time  after  time  efforts  were 
made  to  recover  her,  but  it  was  like  pulling  a  vessel  from 
a  bed  of  liquid  glue  to  attempt  to  extricate  her  from  those 
greedy  sands.  Every  time  the  effort  was  abandoned  she 
relapsed  more  deeply  into  her  couch,  finally  breaking  her 
back,  and  thereby  becoming  useless  for  salvage.  The 
money  expended  upon  this  wreck  represents  a  formidable 
item.  The  Town  Council  of  Lynn  became  entangled  in 
the  fiasco.  About  1894  they  secured  official  powers,  by 
the  passing  of  a  private  Act  of  Parliament,  to  raise  a  loan 
of  ;^ 1 8,000,  or  $90,000,  to  remove  her.  The  money  was 
practically  thrown  away,  and  nearly  the  whole  of  this  sum 
still  remains  unliquidated.  The  Wick  Bay  remained  a 
serious  menace  to  navigation,  until  Thomas  Armit  of 
Utopia  fame  came  along,  and  he  threw  the  hulk  high  and 
dry  on  the  beach. 

Even  the  destruction  of  a  wreck  which  is  impossible 
to  refloat  is  not  a  simple  task.  If  she  has  been  sturdily 
built,  even  dynamite  and  blasting  gelatine  will  not  split  her 
to  shreds  very  readily.  The  citizens  of  Philadelphia  had 
good  occasion  to  be  impressed  with  the  high  standard  of 
British  shipbuilding  on  one  occasion.  The  steamship 
Bermuda  was  built  at  Sunderland  in  1874  ^^r  the  passenger 
service  between  New  York  and  the  Windward  Islands. 
Prior  to  the  Spanish-American  War  she  was  bought  by 
the  Cuban  Junta,  and  was  engaged  in  gun-running  and 
other  filibustering  operations,  to  be  resold  in  due  course 
for  service  in  the  West  India  fruit  trade.  She  was  lying 
off  a  pier  in  the  Delaware  River  one  day,  when  there  was 
an  explosion  on  board.  It  was  thought  to  he  caused  by 
a  cartridge  which  had  worked  i(s  way  into  tlie  bilges,  and 
was  there  detonated.  Whatever  the  cause,  a  big  hole  was 
blown  in  her  bottom,  and  she  sank  into  the  mud. 

She  laid  in  the  river-bed  for  some  three  years.     Attempts 


SALVAGE  231 

were  made  to  refloat  her,  but  she  refused  to  be  drawn  from 
her  unsavoury  soft  couch.  Thereupon  it  was  decided  to 
remove  her  piecemeal.  The  enterprise  was  handed  to  a 
contractor,  and  he  set  to  work.  But  he  found  that  dyna- 
mite, which  will  bring  down  tons  of  rock  readily,  could 
not  destroy  this  solidly  built  steamer  so  easily.  The  work 
was  slow  and  tedious.  Time  after  time  a  charge  would 
be  fired,  without,  or  only  partially,  doing  its  expected 
work.  One  big  blast  at  last  loosened  her  deck  sufficiently 
to  enable  a  powerful  derrick  to  wrench  away  a  solid  piece 
weighing  some  twenty  tons,  which  was  lifted  bodily  and 
deposited  upon  barges,  to  be  broken  up  on  shore  for  sale 
as  scrap-iron.  It  was  some  months  before  the  remaining 
fragments  of  this  old  and  historic  filibuster  were  removed, 
and  the  fairway  of  the  river  was  deprived  of  one  of  its 
most  serious  menaces. 


CHAPTER    XVII 

THE    STEAMSHIP    CONQUEST   OF    LITTLE-KNOWN    WATERS 

The  exacting  demands  of  commerce,  following  in  the 
footsteps  of  civilisation,  have  called  the  marine  engineer  and 
shipbuilder  to  many  strange  places.  Even  then  one  can- 
not suppress  a  start  of  surprise  to  find  fully  fledged  steam- 
ships upon  such  inland  seas  as  the  Victoria  Nyanza  in  the 
heart  of  Africa,  Lake  Titicaca  among  the  clouds  of  Peru, 
or  Lake  Baikal  in  the  centre  of  Siberia  !  How  did  they 
get  there  ?  The  puzzle  is  not  solved  even  when  a  decaying 
building-slip  is  discovered  on  the  bank.  It  seems  incred- 
ible that  a  vessel  200  feet  or  so  in  length,  propelled  by 
steam,  and  bearing  every  resemblance  to  a  big  yacht,  could 
have  been  fashioned  in  such  desolate  situations. 

At  the  same  time  when  one  recalls  the  w^eight  and  bulk 
of  many  of  the  component  parts  of  a  steamship,  one  finds 
it  difficult  to  believe  that  the  steamship  could  have  been 
transported  overland.  A  marine  boiler  is  an  unwieldy  and 
cumbersome  article  to  handle.  Yet  it  is  quite  evident  that 
the  boiler  could  not  have  been  put  together  on  the  banks 
of  the  inland  sea,  as  its  construction  demands  the  use  of 
hydraulic  machinery,  and  other  ponderous  tools,  in  order 
to  weld  the  joints  so  tightly  as  to  resemble  one  continuous 
piece  of  metal ;  otherwise,  directly  steam  is  raised,  disaster 
is  certain. 

The  disinterested  individual  is  apt  to  take  things  which 
he  cannot  comprehend  for  granted,  and  so  possibly  he 
does  not  give  a  second  thought  as  to  how  the  steamship 
got  into  such  outlandish  places. 

Yet  the  provision  of  these  facilities  upon  an  inland  sea, 
cut  off  completely  from  the  friendly  ocean,  has  entailed 
prodigious  efforts  upon  the  part  of  the  engineer.     He  has 

232 


CONQUEST    OF    LITTLE-KNOWN    WATERS    233 

had  to  negotiate  teasing  problems  innumerable,  such  as 
never  arise  in  the  shipyards  of  civilisation,  completing  his 
work  with  unskilled  labour,  with  imperfect  facilities,  and 
often  with  improvised  tools,  puzzled  every  succeeding  hour 
by  some  awkward  development,  and  with  plenty  of 
adventure  and  excitement  thrown  in  to  leaven  up  the 
arduousness  of  the  task. 

In  Great  Britain  there  are  one  or  two  prominent  ship- 
building firms  who  may  be  said  to  make  a  speciality  of 
building  vessels  for  such  remote  insulated  seas  :  such  as 
Messrs.  Bow,  McLachlan  and  Company,  Limited,  and 
Messrs.  Denny  Brothers,  both  of  the  Clyde.  The  first- 
named  is  always  prepared  to  build  a  ship  and  to  send  it 
anywhere.  The  general  practice  is  to  erect  the  craft  first 
in  the  native  shipyard  on  the  Clyde,  completing  it  to  the 
smallest  detail.  It  is  constructed  only  temporarily,  being 
put  together  in  the  same  manner  as  a  costumier  in  the 
first  place  tacks  the  parts  of  a  dress  for  fitting.  When 
it  is  ready  for  launching  the  whole  is  then  dismantled, 
every  individual  part  is  numbered  and  indexed,  to  indicate 
its  precise  position  in  the  hull.  As  the  ship  stands  upon 
the  building  slip,  it  looks  as  if  it  had  been  surrounded 
by  a  group  of  mischievous  schoolboys,  armed  with  chalk, 
for  it  is  covered  with  a  bewildering  array  of  figures  and 
hieroglvphics,  which  to  the  casual  visitor  would  rival  an 
Egyptian  tomb. 

Every  mark  and  number  conveys  a  mine  of  information 
to  the  engineer  who  must  float  that  ship  upon  its  destined 
waters.  By  means  of  the  sheaf  of  drawings  and  models 
he  is  able  to  determine  the  exact  position  of  any  plate, 
door-handle,  or  guy-stay  in  a  moment.  As  the  fabric  is 
dismantled  the  parts  are  packed  in  boxes  and  crates,  each 
of  which  in  turn  is  given  a  distinguishing  number  and 
sign,  so  that  the  engineer  may  be  able  to  determine  by 
reference  to  his  detailed  specification  or  catalogue  the 
precise  contents  of  each  package,  without  being  compelled 
to  open  them  indiscriminately.  The  whole  consignment 
is  then  packed  into  the  hold  of  a  steamer  and  sent  away 


234     STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST   OF   THE    WORLD 

with  the  engineer  in  charge,  assisted  possibly  by  one  or 
two  skilled  hands. 

When  the  steamship,  with  her  dismembered  consort 
within,  has  slipped  out  of  the  home  port,  the  real  troubles 
commence.  It  is  up  to  the  engineer  in  charge  of  the 
enterprise  to  fulfil  the  contract.  He  has  no  knowledge  of 
what  confronts  him  on  the  banks  of  the  waters  upon  which 
the  craft  is  to  float.  He  must  land  his  precious  freight 
as  best  he  can ;  marshal  all  the  crates  and  boxes  upon  the 
landing-stage  of  the  quay ;  is  dependent  entirely  upon  his 
own  ingenuity  and  resources  to  get  them  across  country; 
while  he  has  no  more  idea  than  the  man  in  the  moon  as  to 
how  he  is  going  to  cope  with  the  local  labour  problem. 

Fortunately,  the  average  engineer  never  troubles  trouble 
until  trouble  troubles  him.  The  voyage  passes  with  scarcely 
a  thought  of  what  is  looming  ahead,  and  the  engineer, 
realising  that  he  is  destined  for  a  hard  tussle  lasting  some 
months,  takes  the  opportunity  to  secure  a  little  relaxation. 
He  may  have  a  time-limit  staring  him  in  the  face,  but  his 
cheery  optimism  prevents  this  factor  from  worrying  him. 
It  is  useless  to  speculate  upon  this  or  that,  because  this 
class  of  engineer  has  found  from  bitter  experience  that  the 
best-laid  schemes  have  an  unhappy  knack  of  going  sadly 
agley. 

Take  the  case  of  Mr.  Richard  Grant,  who  was  respon- 
sible for  floating  the  first  steamer,  the  William  Mackinnon, 
upon  the  Victoria  Nyanza.  This  sheet  of  water  is  as  large 
as  Ireland,  aggregating  about  20,000  square  miles.  The 
ship  was  ordered  before  the  Uganda  railway  was  built, 
and  so  in  this  instance  the  erecting  engineer  was  faced  with 
a  pretty  stiff  problem,  seeing  that  Port  Florence  is  nearly 
500  miles  distant  from  Mombasa  on  the  coast.  When  the 
parts  of  the  steamer  were  landed  they  had  to  be  trans- 
ported across  country  on  the  heads  of  coolies,  and  by  what- 
ever other  means  of  transport  were  available.  Despite  the 
handicaps  imposed  the  vessel  w^as  put  together  and 
launched. 

Since  that  day  four  other  vessels  have  been  floated  upon 


CONQUEST    OF    LITTLE-KNOWN    WATERS    235 

this  lake,  the  traffic  of  which  is  increasing  so  rapidly  that 
two  other  boats  are  in  course  of  construction,  and  will 
shortly  bring  the  fleet  up  to  six  twin-screw  craft.  One  of 
the  latest  additions  is  a  single-screw  tug,  100  feet  in  length 
by  20  feet  beam  and  loj^  feet  moulded  depth,  drawing 
7  feet  of  water,  and  with  a  speed  of  8  knots. 

The  second  and  third  units  of  this  inland  fleet,  the 
Winifred  and  the  Sybil,  were  dispatched  to  this  inland  sea 
shortly  after  the  railway  was  opened  for  traffic  in  1902. 
They  are  sister  ships,  175  feet  in  length,  by  29  feet  beam, 
and  9^  feet  moulded  depth,  with  a  draught  of  6  feet  2 
inches.  They  are  driven  by  triple-expansion  engines,  the 
high-pressure  cylinder  having  a  diameter  of  9!  inches, 
while  the  intermediate  is  of  15J  inches,  and  the  low-pres- 
sure of  25  inches  diameter,  the  stroke  being  16  inches. 
The  marine  return-tube  boiler  works  at  160  pounds  pres- 
sure, and  the  vessel  can  notch  10  knots  per  hour  when 
fully  loaded. 

The  transport  of  this  consignment  of  parts,  owing  to 
the  railway,  was  simplified  appreciably  because  the  line 
stretches  from  water's  edge  to  w^ater's  edge.  But  the  rail- 
way presented  a  sorry  sight  by  the  time  the  train  of  parts 
reached  Port  Florence.  It  looked  as  if  the  584  miles  of  line 
had  been  swept  by  a  hurricane,  owing  to  the  havoc  wrought 
to  the  platforms  and  station  buildings.  There  was  not 
sufficient  clearance  between  the  tracks  and  the  permanent 
structures  to  permit  the  ungainly  freight  to  pass,  since 
some  of  the  parts  were  of  unavoidably  large  dimensions, 
overhanging  the  trucks,  and  when  these  struck  the  build- 
ings, or  the  latter  had  to  be  trimmed  back  to  allow  the 
train  to  continue  on  its  way,  considerable  damage  w^as 
done. 

Upon  arrival  at  the  inland  terminus  a  slipway  was  pre- 
pared by  the  engineer,  launching-ways  were  laid  down,  and 
the  re-erection  of  the  steamers  pushed  forward  without 
delay.  Fortunately  the  abundance  of  timber  enabled  the 
engineer  to  run  up  stout  derricks  for  handling  some  of  the 
bulky  material  and  lowering  it  into  position.     The  massive 


236    STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST  OF  THE   WORLD 

boilers,  weighing  some  fifteen  tons,  and  the  condensers, 
were  the  most  awkward  sections  to  handle.  The  side  of 
the  hull  had  to  be  left  open  in  the  boiler  space,  so  as  to 
permit  the  steam  generator  to  be  transferred  to  its  designed 
seating  within  the  ship.  The  setting  of  the  boiler,  in  fact, 
constituted  the  most  difficult  part  of  the  undertaking.  On 
the  Clyde  it  had  not  occasioned  a  second's  thought,  as  it 
was  picked  up  by  a  heavy  crane,  whisked  round  and 
lowered  into  position  with  as  much  ease  as  if  it  had  weighed 
as  many  ounces  as  it  represented  in  tons.  But  on  the 
shores  of  Lake  Nyanza  there  were  no  such  serviceable 
handmaids.  The  engineer  surmounted  the  difficulty  by 
erecting  a  massive  timber  runway,  built  up  of  heavy  baulks, 
upon  a  foundation  of  heavy  lumber.  The  cumbrous 
cylindrical  part  was  warped  and  rolled  into  position  at  the 
foot  of  this  wooden  incline,  and  then  coils  of  thick  cable 
were  passed  round  its  girth  and  strained  to  a  point  on  the 
opposite  side.  While  the  gangs  of  natives  hauled  on  to 
the  hawsers  passed  round  the  boiler,  thus  dragging  it  up 
the  runway,  another  gang  followed  the  ascent  with  huge 
wedges,  which  they  knocked  home  on  the  under-side, 
securing  the  rotund  fifteen-ton  mass  when  the  hauliers 
paused  for  a  breather.  In  this  manner  the  boiler  was  lifted 
inch  by  inch,  until  at  last  it  reached  the  top  of  the  incline 
and  was  then  lowered  into  the  hull,  to  be  made  fast  upon 
its  designed  seatings. 

Since  then  the  builders  of  these  twin-ships  have  sent  two 
other  steamships  in  pieces  to  the  lake,  erected  them  on  the 
bank,  and  transferred  them  to  the  water.  The  third  con- 
tribution to  the  fleet  was  considerably  larger  than  its 
consorts,  being  224  feet  in  length,  by  32J  feet  beam  and 

10  feet  moulded  depth,  with  a  draught  of  6J  feet.  The 
engines  were  larger,  the  diameter  of  the  three  cylinders 
being  respectively  10,  16  and  26  inches,  with  a  stroke  of 
20  inches,  giving  a  speed  of  10  knots  per  hour.  The 
fourth  craft,  the  Nyanaa,  was  larger  still,  the  length  being 
220  feet,  with  a  beam  of  34  feet  and  a  moulded  depth  of 

11  feet,    but   of    similar   draught.      In    this    instance    the 


^    ^^  ,^    -~««^«ip;g^  ^i«^ 


\i      ixv    \.       :\c;    COMPLETION    FOR    LAUNCHING 
Native  labour  was  employed  under  white  supervision,  Ijut,  when  drilled,  proved  efficient. 


Tlie  handling  of  the  Steam  (lenerators  was  a  pretty  problem.     This  shows  hnu  a  boiler 
was  pushed,  i)ulled,  and  wedged  into  its  place  in  the  htdl. 

SHIPHL'ILDIXG    IX    CENTRAL    AFRICA 


SIIIPBIILDING    ABOVE    THE    CLOIDS 

The  steamsliip  Coyn  was  sent  in  pieces  from  the  Clyde,  and  rebuilt  on  the  sliores 
of  Lake  Tilicaca,  12,545  feet  above  the  ocean. 


m^r 


*«»"/wlipf 


A    MOTLEY   SOUAI) 

l''.iiuiTieer  Wilson,  and  some  of  the  native  Peruvians  who  a^-sisted  in  the  Iniiliiing  of  the  Ctiyn. 


CONQUEST   OF   LITTLE-KNOWN    WATERS    237 

engines  coincided  with  the  first  two  vessels,  having  the 
same  dimensions  in  bore  and  stroke  and  of  identical  speed. 

When  making  the  cruise  around  Lake  Nyanza,  one 
secures  a  strikingly  picturesque  combination  of  the  primi- 
tive with  the  civilised.  These  steamers  with  their  fine  lines 
recall  the  steam  yachts  so  familiar  in  civilised  waters. 
They  contrast  vividly  with  the  sailing  dhows  and  the 
canoes,  40  and  50  feet  long,  built  of  bark,  secured  together 
with  strips  of  fibre — no  nails  are  used — and  propelled  by 
18  or  20  swarthy  Masai.  These  were  the  vessels  by  which 
Europeans  who  ventured  into  this  country  before  the  con- 
struction of  the  railway  had  to  make  their  way  across  the 
lake,  tolerating  many  discomforts,  especially  in  rough 
weather.  To-day  the  water  journey  is  no  different  from  a 
trip  up  a  broad  river  at  home. 

More  exciting  and  trying  was  the  task  confronting  Mr. 
John  Wilson  when  he  undertook  to  re-erect  and  launch  a 
small  steamer  upon  that  sheet  of  water,  measuring  120 
miles  in  length  by  35  to  40  miles  in  width,  nestling  among 
the  Peruvian  Andes  at  an  altitude  of  12,545  feet  above  the 
Pacific  sea-board,  known  as  Lake  Titicaca.  This  was  a 
case  of  building  a  steamship  above  the  clouds,  under  the 
most  adverse  conditions,  in  grim  earnest.  Although  this 
sea  is  at  such  an  extreme  altitude,  and  in  the  heart  of  such 
desolate  country,  yet  it  is  a  busy  highway,  practically 
forming  a  continuation  of  the  Mollendo  Railway,  which 
creeps  up  the  steep  Andine  slopes  from  Mollendo  on  the 
coast  to  Puno,  a  distance  of  some  300  miles.  Then  comes 
the  water  stretch  to  Cuzco,  the  capital.  The  first  small 
steamer  was  placed  upon  this  lake  before  the  railway  was 
laid,  the  integral  parts  being  carried  across  country  on 
mules.  Before  the  advent  of  steam  propulsion  upon  this 
sea,  the  native  balsa  was  the  sole  means  of  water  transport. 
It  is  a  crazy  and  primitive  craft  in  very  truth,  being 
fashioned  from  bundles  of  long  stalks  of  the  reeds  which 
grow  so  thickly  along  the  banks,  and  propelled  either  by 
a  mat-sail  made  from  the  same  material,  or  urged  forward 
by  quaint  oars,  in  the  manipulation  of  which  the  natives 


238    STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST  OF  THE   WORLD 

display  great  dexterity.  These  craft,  however,  were  only 
suited  to  the  calmest  weather,  and  when  the  severe  storms, 
to  which  this  lake  is  subject,  swept  down,  lashing  the  water 
to  fury,  traffic  was  interrupted. 

The  trade  having  outgrown  the  capacity  of  the  little 
pioneer  steamer,  a  second  and  larger  vessel  was  ordered 
from  the  yards  of  Messrs.  Denny  Brothers  on  the  Clyde, 
by  the  Peruvian  Corporation,  who  had  taken  over  the 
transport  system  of  the  country  after  the  devastating  wars. 
The  Coya,  as  she  is  named,  is  a  shallow  draft  steamer 
170  feet  in  length  by  26  feet  beam,  with  accommodation 
for  45  first-class  and  30  second-class  passengers,  as  well  as 
ample  space  for  freight.  In  this  instance  careful  attention 
had  to  be  devoted  to  the  size  and  bulk  of  the  individual 
packages  containing  the  component  parts,  to  secure  pas- 
sage through  the  tunnels  and  under  the  bridges  of  the 
railway  leading  up  from  the  coast.  Still,  there  were 
certain  sections,  the  dimensions  and  weight  of  which  could 
not  be  reduced  very  advantageously,  namely,  the  boilers, 
which  weighed  fifteen  tons  apiece,  and  the  condensers, 
which  turned  the  scale  at  five  tons. 

The  engineer  started  off  on  his  long  journey  from  the 
Clyde  to  Mollendo  with  his  dismembered  charge  in  the 
holds  of  the  boat  sailing  for  this  Pacific  port.  Directly 
he  reached  the  end  of  the  ocean  journey  his  troubles 
commenced.  The  landing  of  the  cases  occasioned  many 
an  anxious  moment,  as  the  port  is  quite  exposed,  and  is 
subject  to  a  heavy  swell,  with  a  nasty  surf  breaking  on  the 
shore.  The  greater  number  of  the  cases  of  the  Coya  were 
discharged  into  lighters  and  brought  ashore  in  that  manner, 
but  the  exposed  position,  and  the  unpropitious  nature  of 
the  weather,  caused  the  wary  Scottish  engineer  to  investi- 
gate the  coast-line,  in  order  to  discover,  if  possible,  a  more 
sheltered  spot  where  the  boilers  might  be  transferred  from 
the  steamship  to  the  lighters,  thence  to  be  towed  into 
Mollendo  and  landed.  He  found  an  excellent  anchorage 
at  Islay  to  the  north,  and  here  the  trans-shipment  was 
carried  out.     The  engineer,  however,  took  the  precaution 


CONQUEST   OF    LITTLE-KNOWN    WATERS    239 

to  plug  the  boilers  before  they  were  shipped ;  so  that  in  the 
unlucky  event  of  a  lighter  capsizing,  the  steam-generator 
would  float,  and  be  recoverable  with  little  injury.  The 
loss,  or  damage  of,  a  boiler  would  have  been  disastrous. 
The  engineer  was  faced  with  a  time-limit  of  twelve  months 
to  complete  the  undertaking,  and  the  schedule  was  cut  so 
finely  that  the  slightest  delay  would  have  proved  serious. 
However,  the  boilers  were  landed  on  the  wharf  without 
a  mishap,  and  the  movement  towards  the  lake  was 
commenced. 

The  packages,  crates  and  boilers  as  they  were  landed 
were  transferred  to  railway  trucks,  twenty-two  of  which 
were  required  to  carry  the  whole  of  the  dismembered  Coya 
to  her  final  destination.  The  boilers  were  lashed  and 
stayed  to  prevent  oscillation  and  collision  with  the  low 
tunnels  and  bridges,  the  clearance  being  a  mere  matter  of 
inches  only. 

When  the  train  reached  Arequipa,  Wilson  broke  the 
journey,  partly  to  get  accustomed  to  the  rarefied  and 
colder  air.  This  point,  at  an  altitude  of  7,500  feet,  is 
know  as  "The  Half-way  House."  The  locomotive  shops 
of  the  railway  are  situated  here,  and  as  Wilson  had  been 
notified  that  by  the  time  he  reached  Arequipa  all  tools 
and  tackle  required  for  his  work  would  be  ready,  he  pressed 
the  halt  into  service  to  have  these  put  aboard  the  train. 
His  feelings  may  be  imagined  when  he  found  that  the 
sum  of  the  arrangements  provided  was  merely  a  collection 
of  disused  railway  cross-ties  or  sleepers  !  There  was  not 
the  sign  of  a  tool  :  not  even  a  hammer.  This  was  an 
unexpected  state  of  affairs.  The  builders  at  home  had 
relied  upon  the  railway  authorities  in  this  respect,  and 
had  not  even  sent  out  a  hammer,  convinced  that  Wilson 
would  be  able  to  get  more  than  he  wanted  at  Arequipa. 
What  was  worse,  he  could  not  purchase  such  a  tool  for  love 
or  money.  This  was  a  dilemma.  To  send  back  to  Eng- 
land for  a  supply  meant  a  delay  of  months,  and  here  he 
was  working  against  a  time-limit.  While  Wilson  learned 
the   fallacy   of   trusting  to   South    American    railways,    he 


240    STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST  OF  THE   WORLD 

realised  that  he  was  compelled  to  make  the  best  of  a  bad 
bargain.  Thereupon  he  scoured  the  railway  scrap-heap, 
unearthed  a  few^  pieces  of  discarded  steel,  from  which  he 
fashioned  the  hammers  and  other  tools  he  required. 
Fortunately,  the  carpenter  had  brought  his  tool-bag  with 
him,  so  the  railway  sleepers,  which  had  been  thoughtfully 
placed  on  one  side,  were  seized  and  sawn  up  into  keel 
blocks. 

Upon  arrival  at  the  lake  further  troubles  awaited  him. 
The  sea,  being  tideless,  the  selection  of  a  suitable  point 
for  his  temporary  shipyard  and  the  launching  w^ays  was 
by  no  means  simple,  owing  to  the  generally  unfavourable 
character  of  the  banks.  The  only  spot  which  could  be 
made  to  suit  his  purposes  w'as  a  small  potato  patch,  belong- 
ing to  a  Quichua  Indian,  which  dipped  into  the  lake. 
The  potato  patch  was  unkempt  and  almost  forgotten  when 
Wilson  arrived,  but  when  he  suggested  renting  it  for  a  few 
months,  the  value  it  assumed  in  its  owner's  estimation  was 
astonishing.  At  first  the  Indian  point-blank  refused  to 
let  it  under  any  conditions,  and  days  were  spent  by  the 
Scotsman  and  the  cunning  Indian  in  haggling  and  bar- 
gaining. At  last,  after  careful  prolonged  discussion, 
and  for  a  heavy  consideration,  the  Quichua  relented.  The 
engineer  was  given  permission  to  set  up  his  shipyard  and 
shops  on  the  potato  patch,  on  condition  that  he  leased  the 
Indian's  residence  for  the  same  time!  It  is  to  be  feared 
that  the  wily  Quichua  in  this  instance  got  the  better  of  the 
canny  Scot,  for  had  he  not  got  his  own  terms,  and  was  he 
not  a  white  man's  landlord  for  a  whole  year  ! 

The  ways  were  improvised  from  timbers  used  by  the 
railway  in  the  erection  of  its  bridges,  and  the  berth  was 
placed  as  near  the  water's  edge  as  possible.  The  engineer, 
being  robbed  of  tidal  movement,  resolved  to  press  the 
seasonal  fluctuations  in  the  lake  level  to  his  aid.  The 
water  was  low  at  this  time,  but  he  calculated  that  every- 
thing would  be  ready  for  launching  by  the  time  the  water 
had  risen  in  the  wet  season.  Building,  once  a  start  was 
made,  went  forward  with  great  rapidity  under  the  circum- 


CONQUEST   OF    LITTLE-KNOWN    WATERS    241 

stances,  though  at  first  difficulty  and  delays  were  experi- 
enced in  teaching  the  raw  unskilled  natives  the  art  of 
riveting.  After  a  little  patience  and  practice,  however, 
the  Indians  became  quite  expert  at  this  work. 

Progress  was  hampered  sadly  by  the  thieving  tactics 
of  some  of  the  workmen.  The  Gringoes  were  the  worst 
offenders  in  this  respect,  and  stopped  at  nothing  to  gain 
their  ends.  They  are  the  scum  of  the  population,  with  the 
blood  of  a  host  of  nationalities  coursing  through  their 
veins.  Directly  they  heard  of  the  enterprise  they  flocked 
to  the  scene  and  promptly  purloined  any  metallic  articles 
within  reach.  They  hung  about  the  yard,  interfering  with 
the  workmen  who  were  peaceful  and  industrious,  according 
to  their  lights,  and  at  times  menaced  the  engineer  so 
threateningly  that  Wilson  was  compelled  to  demonstrate 
to  them  the  possibilities  of  a  revolver  which  he  kept  to 
hand,  though  fortunately  he  was  not  called  upon  to  use  it. 
A  glimpse  of  the  weapon  was  sufficient  to  scare  the 
Peruvian  loafer. 

Holidays,  in  commemoration  of  some  saint  or  another, 
were  of  almost  daily  occurrence.  The  engineer  remarked 
to  me  that  he  concluded  they  have  got  almost  enough  saints 
in  South  America  to  carry  every  day  in  the  year.  Then  he 
had  a  somewhat  tiresome  difficulty  in  controlling  his  men. 
He  counted  up  the  nationalities  of  his  employees  one  day, 
and  found  that  no  less  than  fourteen  different  tongues  were 
represented.  The  babble  when  they  were  talking  in  their 
work  was  bewildering,  but,  fortunately  for  him,  one  and 
all  were  more  or  less  conversant  with  Spanish,  so  that  he 
was  able  to  communicate  his  instructions  comprehensively. 

When  it  came  to  lifting  the  heavier  and  bulkier  parts 
of  the  machinery  another  dead-stop  appeared  imminent. 
The  boilers  measured  16J  feet  long  by  8  feet  in  diameter. 
Together  with  the  condensers  they  had  to  be  tugged  and 
hauled  by  sheer  physical  effort  from  the  railway  yard  to 
the  berth,  and  there  installed  in  the  hull  before  launching. 
The  railway  did  not  possess  a  portable  crane  for  hoisting 
the    boilers    into    position,    and    he    was    puzzled    how    to 

R 


242     STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST  OF  THE   WORLD 

contrive  a  set  of  sheer-legs,  as  the  country,  owing  to  its 
altitude,  does  not  yield  an  inch  of  timber.  He  happened 
to  hear  that  down  at  Mollendo  an  old  wind-jammer  was 
laid  up,  and  that  he  might  be  able  to  get  hold  of  the  masts 
and  spars  to  help  him  over  the  difficulty.  He  hurried 
down  to  the  port,  but  news  of  his  coming  and  mission 
sped  ahead.  When  he  unearthed  the  owner  of  the  dis- 
carded sailing-vessel,  this  individual  had  not  the  slightest 
disposition  to  sell.  He  had  cultivated  an  extraordinary 
affection  for  his  old  boat,  though  a  week  before  he  would 
have  been  glad  to  have  sold  it  for  firewood.  More 
haggling  and  bargaining  ensued,  and  it  was  some  time 
before  the  wily  owner  relented.  When  he  stated  his  price 
for  the  spars,  the  engineer  nearly  collapsed.  He  could 
have  bought  the  whole  ship  as  it  stood  for  less.  However, 
argument  was  useless.  The  engineer  was  cornered,  so  he 
smothered  his  feelings  and  made  the  best  of  a  bad  deal. 
He  hastened  back  with  the  spars,  rigged  up  a  derrick,  and 
after  much  labour  the  bulky  weighty  parts  were  set  truly 
in  position. 

The  launching  ceremony  was  a  red-letter  day  in  Peru, 
and  the  population  turned  it  into  a  national  festival.  The 
natives  flocked  to  the  shipyard  from  miles  around,  and 
the  shore  was  lined  with  over  5000  Indians.  The  Bishop 
of  Puno,  supported  by  the  Mayor  and  numerous  other 
civic  dignitaries,  pronounced  the  religious  ceremony  in 
Spanish,  the  Mayor  smashed  the  proverbial  bottle  of  wine 
across  the  bow%  as  the  impatient  engineer  let  go  the  trigger 
holding  the  vessel  on  the  stocks.  Released,  the  Coya  slid 
down  the  ways  as  if  glad  to  leave  dry  land,  her  stern 
dipped  into  the  water,  and  a  second  later  she  was  buoyant. 
The  yells  and  frantic  halloos  of  delight  from  the  Indians 
were  deafening,  but  Wilson  was  the  most  satisfied  member 
of  the  crowd.  His  six  months'  work  was  crowned  with 
success — he  had  got  the  Coya  afloat. 

The  vessel  was  towed  alongside  the  primitive  landing- 
stage  at  Puno,  and  the  upper  works  were  completed 
rapidly.     Unfortunately   the  engineer   was  stricken   down 


CONQUEST   OF    LITTLE-KNOWN    WATERS    243 

by  a  severe  attack  of  fever,  brought  on  by  the  mountain 
sickness  and  malarial  conditions,  but  while  he  tossed  in 
delirium,  his  assistant,  the  ship's  carpenter,  who  had 
come  from  Scotland  with  him,  kept  the  Indians  to  their 
work,  so  no  time  was  lost.  The  contract  time  was  drawing 
to  its  close,  and  every  effort  was  crowded  on.  The 
steam  trials  were  made  the  occasion  of  further  rejoicing, 
but  at  first  things  did  not  go  smoothly,  owing  to  the 
rarefied  air  not  providing  sufficient  oxygen  to  maintain 
combustion,  added  to  the  fact  that  timber  was  used  as 
fuel.  This  difficulty  was  adjusted  in  due  course,  and 
then  the  engines  settled  down  to  their  running  as  if 
they  had  been  working  for  years.  The  engineer  made 
several  trips  across  the  lake,  and  then  turned  the  vessel 
over  to  the  local  captain— one  day  before  the  expiration  of 
the  time-limit !  The  job,  from  the  day  he  left  Scotland 
with  the  dismembered  Coya  until  she  was  taken  over  by 
her  owners,  occupied  364  days. 

Two  or  three  years  ago,  the  traffic  on  the  lake  having 
grown,  another  steamer  was  ordered.  This  boat,  the  Inca, 
was  built  by  Earle's  Shipbuilding  and  Engineering  Com- 
pany, Limited,  at  their  Hull  yards,  and  also  sent  out 
in  pieces  to  AloUendo,  transported  overland  by  railway, 
and  re-erected  on  the  bank  of  the  lake.  The  whole  ship 
was  temporarily  built  or  tacked  together  at  Hull,  and  then 
dismembered  and  packed  in  the  manner  already  explained. 
The  saloons,  state-rooms,  pantries,  etc.,  were  built  in  the 
joiner's  shop,  a  portion  of  the  building  being  prepared 
to  represent  the  deck  of  the  vessel.  This  part  of  the  work 
was  completed  practically  in  every  respect,  including  up- 
holstery, curtains,  rods,  dining-tables  and  so  forth,  as  well 
as  the  steam-heating  installation.  The  leads  of  the  wires 
for  the  electric  light,  position  of  the  switches,  and  all  other 
details  were  indicated  plainly  on  the  cabin  walls.  The 
auxiliary  machinery,  fans  for  forced  draught,  with  pipes 
and  connections,  were  all  fitted  up  on  the  ship. 

In  addition  to  what  may  be  termed  the  structural  fabric, 
a  vast  assortment  of  incidental  fittings,  such  as  bolts,  nuts, 
R  2 


244     STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST  OF  THE   WORLD 

rivets,  screws,  pitch,  paint,  jointing  material,  as  well  as 
tallow,  soap  and  oil  for  greasing  the  launching-ways,  had 
to  be  made  up.  By  the  time  the  Inca  in  her  dismembered 
condition  was  ready  for  shipment  she  was  distributed 
among  3000  packages,  each  of  which  carried  a  separate 
identification  mark  for  the  guidance  of  the  re-erecting 
engineer,  together  with  individual  marks  for  shipment. 

The  difficulties  experienced  with  the  landing  of  the  Coya 
at  Mollendo  were  repeated,  and  at  times  the  unloading, 
especially  of  the  heavier  and  larger  pieces,  was  attended 
with  considerable  risk.  Still,  the  task  was  achieved  with  a 
commendable  immunity  from  accident,  owing  to  the  care 
and  vigilance  displayed.  Only  in  one  or  two  instances 
were  parcels  damaged  in  the  course  of  transit  from  ship 
to  shore. 

The  Inca  is  the  largest  steamship  engaged  upon  Lake 
Titicaca  at  present.  She  measures  220  feet  in  length  by 
30  feet  beam,  and  14  feet  moulded  depth.  She  is  driven 
by  twin-screws,  the  engines  developing  about  1000  indi- 
cated horse-power.  With  a  dead-weight  of  550  tons  on 
board,  she  steams  at  a  speed  of  12  knots  per  hour. 

A  different  method  was  practised  when  Lieutenant  Simon 
succeeded  in  placing  two  small  gunboats  upon  the  upper 
reaches  of  the  Mekong  River,  1,500  miles  from  the  sea,  in 
the  heart  of  Lower  China.  He  was  dispatched  to  the  East 
by  the  PVench  Government  to  survey  the  whole  length  of 
this  waterway,  and  one  of  the  boats  was  sent  out  in  five 
sections.  The  craft  were  small,  somewhat  recalling  the 
excursion  steamers  one  encounters  upon  the  higher  reaches 
of  the  Thames,  or  the  backwoods  waterways  of  the 
American  continent.  The  dismembered  boat  was  cut  into 
five  slices  transversely,  as  if  it  were  a  brick-shaped  loaf, 
each  section  being  fitted  completely,  so  that  when  the 
dismembered  craft  reached  its  destination  it  was  only  neces- 
sary to  bring  the  sections  side  by  side  in  a  line  in  their 
proper  positions,  and  then  to  bolt  the  whole  together. 
Even  this  was  no  light  undertaking,  as  some  of  the  sections 
weighed  over  ten  tons  apiece. 


CONQUEST   OF    LITTLE-KNOWN    WATERS    245 

They  were  dispatched  to  the  East  in  the  hold  of  a 
steamer,  landed,  and  put  into  the  water.  They  then 
steamed  up-country,  along  the  waterway,  as  far  as  possible. 
When  the  Lieutenant  encountered  an  obstruction,  he  sub- 
divided the  larger  boat,  drove  a  path  through  the  virgin 
forest  around  the  obstacle,  laid  a  pair  of  rails,  and  lifted 
the  boat,  section  by  section,  upon  a  low-wheeled  truck, 
where  it  was  wedged  into  position.  It  was  then  hauled 
by  gangs  of  natives  through  the  jungle.  Regaining  the 
river,  the  parts  were  put  together  again  and  the  craft  once 
more  launched  into  the  water  from  the  wheeled  carriage,  the 
latter  being  tilted  forward  especially  for  the  purpose.  It 
was  a  highly  adventurous  undertaking  beset  with  perils 
innumerable,  and  rendered  further  exciting  because  of  the 
animosity  of  the  Siamese  to  the  hydrographer's  advance. 

When  the  Klondyke  gold  rush  set  in,  from  all  corners 
of  the  globe,  a  steamship  service  was  one  of  the  first  pro- 
positions entertained,  x^ccordingly,  the  shores  of  Lake 
Bennett  resounded  with  the  clanging  of  hammers,  a  con- 
tinuous rapping  as  rivets  were  driven  home  and  the  clatter 
of  steel  and  iron.  In  these  latitudes  plenty  of  timber  is 
available,  so  the  erection  of  the  slipways  and  stocks  did  not 
present  many  difficulties.  The  main  problem  was  the 
Jiaulage  of  the  weightier  and  bulkier  material  from  the 
coast  at  Skaguay,  over  the  sinister  Chilkoot  Pass.  Heavy 
sleds  were  built  on  which  the  boilers  and  engines  were 
loaded,  wedged  and  lashed  tightly,  to  prevent  an  accident 
when  rumbling  over  the  rough  ground,  and  these  cumbrous 
loads  were  hauled  in  with  infinite  labour  and  privations 
by  horses  and  mules.  The  vessels  were  launched,  and 
then  a  link  of  communication  was  established  over  the  great 
highway  of  the  Klondyke — the  Yukon  River — between 
Whitehorse,  Lake  Bennett  and  Dawson  City.  To-day, 
although  the  boats  still  maintain  the  communication  during 
the  summer  months,  the  shipyards  of  Bennett  are  only  a 
terrible  nightmare.  The  stocks  and  buildings  have  fallen 
into  decay,  except  those  required  for  repairing  the  existing 
boats  and  a  scene  of  departed  prosperity  hangs  over  all. 


246    STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST  OF   THE   WORLD 

These  frontier  boats  belong  to  what  is  known  as  the 
"Alligator  "  type.  They  draw  only  a  few  inches  of  water, 
seem  unwarrantably  top-heavy,  but  nevertheless  are  ex- 
ceedingly convenient  and  safe.  At  the  stern  are  big 
paddles  resembling  water-wheels,  which  propel  the  boat. 
The  broad  blades  are  of  wood,  and  one  of  the  most 
common  incidents  upon  these  troublesome,  rapidly  rushing 
waterways  of  the  frontier  countries,  is  a  grind,  crash 
and  scrape  over  submerged  rocks,  the  toll  being  the  split- 
ting and  loss  of  half-a-dozen  blades  or  so.  On  several 
occasions  I  have  encountered  one  of  these  curious  vessels 
drawn  into  the  shelter  of  the  bank,  wath  the  crew  swarming 
over  the  stern  fixing  new  blades  with  desperate  haste. 
Delays  of  five  days  or  more  /rom  such  a  smash  are  by  no 
means  infrequent,  but  it  is  only  the  passengers  who  suffer. 
The  companies  operating  these  boats  know  the  caprices 
of  the  waterways,  and  accordingly  do  not  follow  European 
practice  by  charging  inclusive  fares,  but  levy  a  daily  tariff 
for  the  berth  and  meals  in  the  proportion  of  a  dollar  or 
four  shillings  for  the  former,  and  fifty  cents  or  two  shillings 
for  each  of  the  latter  per  head,  the  passage  money  merely 
entitling  a  person  to  step  on  board.  Thus  a  journey  may 
be  covered  safely  in  two  days,  or  it  may  take  twelve  days, 
according  to  the  captain's  fortune. 

When  these  boats  have  fulfilled  their  mission  on  one 
waterway,  and  navigation  is  abandoned,  the  machinery 
is  taken  out,  together  with  the  other  marketable  equip- 
ment, and  the  hull  is  scrapped.  The  removed  parts  are 
sent  across  country  to  another  waterway  that  is  to  be 
exploited,  where  a  new  hull  is  fashioned  and  launched  to 
receive  the  machinery.  When  the  upper  Eraser  River  was 
exploited,  the  boilers  and  other  fittings  were  shipped  to 
Ashcroft  on  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway,  thence  trans- 
ported overland  on  wagons  to  Soda  Creek,  165  miles 
distant,  where  they  were  placed  in  newly-built  hulls. 
This  was  no  light  undertaking,  as  the  boilers  weighed  ten 
tons  apiece,  and  although  the  road  surface  was  fairly  good 
for  travelling,  many  teams  of  horses  were  required.     The 


CONQUEST   OF    LITTLE-KNOWN    WATERS    247 

transport  charges  were  unavoidably  heavy,  averaging 
5  cents,  or  2^d.,  per  pound,  so  that  the  conveyance  of  a 
lo-ton  boiler  over  the  165  miles  represented  an  outlay  of 
about  ;^ioo,  or  $500 — more  than  the  article  was  worth  in 
some  instances,  as  it  had  already  put  in  many  years  of 
useful  service. 

When  the  trans-Siberian  Railway  was  driven  across 
Siberia,  the  continuity  of  the  metals  was  interrupted  by  the 
long  stretch  of  water  forming  Lake  Baikal.  To  establish 
a  through  service  before  the  rail  was  carried  round  the 
southern  shore  of  the  lake,  a  massive  ice-breaking  ferry, 
capable  of  transporting  the  trains  intact  across  the  forty 
miles  of  water,  was  acquired.  The  contract  for  this  vessel 
was  placed  with  Sir  W.  Armstrong,  Whitworth  &  Com- 
pany, and  it  was  built  in  their  yards  at  Elswick,  while  the 
machinery  was  built  by  Swan,  Hunter,  &  Wigham 
Richardson,  Limited,  at  Wallsend-on-Tyne. 

The  vessel  measures  290  feet  in  length  by  57  feet  beam, 
is  fitted  with  15  cylindrical  boilers,  and  3  sets  of  triple- 
expansion  engines  developing  3,750  indicated  horse-power. 
Its  displacement,  otherwise  total  weight,  is  4,200  tons. 
The  ice-breaker  w^as  erected  complete  upon  the  Tyne,  every 
part  being  numbered  for  identification.  Then  it  was  dis- 
mounted, packed  in  pieces,  and  dispatched  by  steamer  to 
St.  Petersburg.  Thence  it  was  sent  across  Russia  and 
Siberia  to  the  village  of  Listvenitchnoie  upon  the  shores 
of  Lake  Baikal,  by  whatever  system  of  transport  was  avail- 
able. Team  wagons  had  to  be  used  extensively  owing 
to  the  railway  being  incomplete.  At  its  destination  a 
shipyard  was  improvised,  the  pieces  were  sorted  out  and 
put  together.  Despite  the  long  overland  journey,  and  the 
extreme  difficulties  attending  the  transportation  of  the 
thousand-and-one  pieces,  the  vessel  was  rebuilt  in  its 
distant  home  without  the  slightest  hitch.  Shortly  after 
its  installation  upon  the  lake  another  vessel  of  the  same 
class,  but  about  a  quarter  of  the  size,  was  built  and 
transported  in  pieces  to  the  same  lake  for  the  railway 
service. 


248     STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

The  marine  engineer,  like  his  contemporary  associated 
with  the  construction  of  railways,  is  prepared  to  go  any- 
where in  the  interests  of  his  profession.  So  long  as  there 
are  a  few  inches  of  water  he  will  build  and  launch  his 
vessel. 


CHAPTER    XVIII 

FLOATING    DOCKS 

The  amazingly  rapid  growth  in  the  length  and  weight 
of  ocean  liners,  combined  with  the  fact  that  finality  is  not 
in  sight  by  any  means,  has  disturbed  the  serenity  of  those 
responsible  for  the  provision  of  mooring  and  docking 
facilities  in  the  various  ports  of  the  world.  A  dry  dock 
which  has  to  be  excavated  from  the  solid  earth  or  rock 
is  an  expensive  luxury  so  far  as  construction  is  con- 
cerned. Yet  it  is  absolutely  necessary.  The  gigantic  liner 
must  be  removed  from  her  native  element  at  intervals  for 
the  purpose  of  cleaning  the  submerged  portions  of  her  hull, 
which  become  clogged  with  marine  growths  and  retard  her 
speed  very  appreciably.  An  express  liner,  to  be  in  the 
pink  of  condition  and  to  maintain  her  paces,  must  be 
groomed  as  carefully  as  a  race-horse,  whose  counterpart, 
indeed,  she  represents  upon  the  ocean.  By  keeping  the 
under-water  part  of  the  hull  as  brilliantly  polished  as  a 
mirror  she  will  slip  through  the  water  with  complete  ease; 
if  it  is  permitted  to  become  encrusted  and  dirty  the  water 
clings  to  it  and  acts  as  a  drag.  Nor  must  the  con- 
tingencies of  repair  and  overhaul  be  overlooked.  From 
time  to  time  the  propellers  demand  renewal,  as  their  sur- 
faces become  pitted  and  worn,  and  they  lose  their 
efficiency.  Accidents  will  happen,  and  to  effect  repairs 
below  the  Plimsoll  mark  the  vessel's  body  must  be  exposed. 

The  two  oldest  methods  of  achieving  this  end  are  by 
means  of  the  graving  dock  and  the  slipway.  In  the  first- 
named  instance  the  ship  is  admitted  into  an  excavated 
space,  and  when  berthed  the  entrance  is  closed  with  water- 
tight gates  or  huge  caissons.  Then  the  water  within  the 
enclosed  area  is  pumped  out,  leaving  it  empty  and  dry  to 

249 


250    STEAMSHIP  CONQUEST  OF  THE   WORLD 

permit  the  workmen  to  reach  the  lowest  parts  of  the  craft, 
just  as  if  she  were  resting  upright  upon  the  beach.  The 
second  method  is  to  lay  down  an  inclined  plane,  rising  out 
of  the  water  at  a  gentle  angle,  similar  to  the  launching- 
ways,  on  which  travels  an  elaborate  truck.  This  truck  is 
run  down  the  plane,  which  is  continued  well  into  the  water, 
so  that  the  carriage  may  be  brought  beneath  the  vessel. 
The  ship  then  becomes  deposited  in  a  kind  of  cradle,  built 
upon  the  truck,  and  then  is  hauled  up  the  slips  on  the 
wheeled-carriage  until  she  is  high  and  dry. 

While  this  latter  system  is  suited  to  a  small  vessel,  it 
is  quite  impracticable  with  a  liner  such  as  the  Mauretania 
or  the  Olympic.  In  the  first  place,  the  inclined  plane 
would  have  to  be  3000  feet  or  more  in  length,  the  founda- 
tions would  have  to  be  excessively  deep  and  solid  to 
support  a  weight  of  some  45,000  tons  and  the  hauling 
machinery  would  require  to  be  of  huge  power,  while  the 
cradle  would  need  to  be  a  gigantic  affair.  Consequently, 
the  slipway  is  ruled  out  of  court  entirely  when  vessels 
exceeding  a  few  hundred  tons  are  concerned. 

So  far  as  the  graving  dock  is  concerned,  this  is  quite 
practicable — so  long  as  the  harbour  is  supported  by  a  rich 
treasury,  and  can  obtain  any  demanded  sum  of  money 
to  gratify  requirements.  Unfortunately,  however,  dock- 
building  is  somewhat  costly,  and,  in  order  to  keep  pace 
with  shipbuilding  activity,  extensions  must  be  made  con- 
tinually, unless  time  is  taken  by  the  forelock,  and  the  dock 
is  made  of  sufficient  dimensions  in  the  first  instance  to  meet 
future  requirements  for  several  years.  If  the  harbour 
authorities  concerned  are  in  a  position  to  keep  spending 
money  in  order  to  keep  abreast  of  the  times,  no  apprehen- 
sions need  be  entertained,  but  the  average  harbour-trust  is 
not  in  the  happy  position  to  ignore  capital  expenditure.  As 
a  matter  of  fact,  the  number  of  ports  which  are  able  to  dry- 
dock  a  vessel  of  the  proportions  of  the  Olympic  may  be 
numbered  upon  the  fingers  of  one  hand.  Suppose,  for 
instance,  the  Titanic  had  survived  the  blow  inflicted  by 
the  iceberg  and  had  crawled  into  New  York.     What  would 


THE    SELF-DOCKIXC;    FLOATINC    DOCK 

Tlie  central  sertiun  is  released,  and  lifted  by  tlie  two  ends,  which  are  turned  round  for  the  purpose. 


ON    rm-;  deck  oi'    riii-:  ski.i--ihxkinc.   i-L(\\Ti.\f.  hock 

■'howiii^  how  the  central  section  is  lifli<l  hi-h  and  dr\   t.i  alhiw  access  to  its  suhnier.ued  parts 


FLOATING    DOCKS  251 

have  happened  ?  That  port  does  not  possess  a  single 
graving  dock  large  enough  in  which  repairs,  even  of  a 
temporary  character,  could  have  been  made.  Divers 
would  have  been  compelled  to  descend  and  patch  up  the 
wound  as  best  they  could  to  enable  the  boat  to  have  limped 
across  the  Atlantic  to  a  British  port  where  she  could  have 
been  revealed  from  keel  to  water-line. 

Fortunately,  engineering  science  has  devised  a  highly 
successful  alternative.  The  costly  dock  carved  out  of  a  spit 
of  land,  and  lined  heavily  with  masonry,  is  no  longer 
necessary.  Inventive  skill  has  perfected  a  means  of 
creating  an  artificial  structure,  wrought  of  steel,  shaped 
roughly  like  a  long  box  without  the  short  ends  or  top,  and 
with  hollow  walls  and  bottom,  which  may  be  sunk  deeply 
by  admitting  water  into  the  hollow  spaces  to  permit  the 
liner  to  be  towed  or  to  steam  over  the  floor.  Then  by 
ejecting  the  water  from  these  hollow  spaces  by  means  of 
pumps  the  structure  may  be  rendered  buoyant,  to  rise  to 
the  surface,  lifting  the  vessel  within,  and  laying  every  inch 
of  her  hull  as  bare  and  as  readily  accessible  as  if  she  were 
stowed  high  and  dry  in  a  graving  dock. 

This  is  the  "floating  dock,"  the  perfection  of  which  has 
changed  the  whole  conditions  of  modern  shipbuilding — 
especially  liners — to  a  very  pronounced  degree,  although 
its  influences  are  not  appreciated  so  widely  in  Great  Britain 
as  in  Germany.  The  origin  of  this  simple  method  is 
buried  in  the  depths  of  time.  The  idea  is  said  to  have 
been  suggested  by  the  device  of  an  ingenious  sea-captain 
who  sailed  the  Baltic  Sea.  The  copper  hull  of  his  craft 
demanded  overhaul  and  repair,  but  he  was  sorely  perplexed 
as  to  how  he  could  get  at  the  under-water  portions  for  the 
purpose.  Then  a  brilliant  thought  crossed  his  mind,  which 
he  resolved  to  put  to  the  test.  He  procured  a  vessel  called 
the  Camel  and  removed  the  whole  of  its  interior,  leaving 
merely  the  hull  or  shell.  He  then  cut  away  the  whole  of 
the  stern,  substituting  a  swinging  water-tight  gate  in  its 
place.  This  shell  was  submerged  with  its  gate  open,  and 
the  captain  warped  his  vessel  until  she  was  well  inside.     The 


252     STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

gate  was  closed,  and  the  water  within  the  disembowelled 
Camel  was  pumped  out,  causing  it  to  rise  and  lift  the 
ship  within  until  her  hull  was  exposed  to  enable  the 
requisite  overhaul  to  be  effected.  When  the  water  was 
re-admitted  the  Camel  sank  until  the  berthed  ship  was 
buoyant  once  more,  the  gate  was  opened,  and  the  repaired 
ship  was  free  to  emerge.  Such  is  supposed  to  be  the 
origin  of  the  floating  dock.  How  much  of  the  story  is 
fact,  and  how  much  is  fiction,  cannot  be  said,  but  it  is 
more  or  less  upon  this  principle  that  the  floating  dock  of 
to-day  operates. 

There  are  about  350  of  these  appliances  scattered 
throughout  the  various  ports  of  the  world  at  the  present 
time,  and  their  number  is  increasing  steadily.  This  de- 
velopment has  been  stimulated,  for  the  most  part,  by  the 
rapid  increase  in  the  size  of  warships,  the  docking  of  a 
Super-Dreadnought  being  a  somewhat  difficult  matter, 
owing  to  the  scarcity  of  masonry-lined  graving  docks. 
Curiouslv  enough,  although  the  floating  dock  is  becoming 
so  universally  utilised,  its  design  is  virtually  a  British 
monopoly,  the  designs  for  the  greater  number  of  these 
appliances  emanating  from  the  offices  of  one  firm,  Messrs. 
Clark  &  Stanfield,  of  Westminster,  London.  These 
engineers  have  been  responsible  for  over  ninety  per  cent, 
of  the  floating  docks  which  have  been  built  within  the  past 
half-century,  for  countries  as  wide  apart  as  Brazil  and 
Germany. 

Whether  it  is  due  to  conservatism  or  ignorance,  the  fact 
remains  that  these  islands  have  displayed  the  least  enter- 
prise in  the  adoption  of  such  facilities  for  lifting  a  vessel 
clear  of  the  water  within  the  minimum  of  time.  On  the 
other  hand,  Germany  and  the  United  States  have  taken 
them  up  liberally,  realising  that  they  are  superior,  from 
the  all-round  point  of  view,  to  the  average  graving  dock. 
So  far  as  first  cost  is  concerned,  they  are  overw^helmingly 
cheaper  than  the  permanent  rival,  are  more  convenient  and 
handy,  and,  what  is  far  more  important,  thev  are  not  con- 
demned to  one  spot.     They  may  be  towed  from  point  to 


FLOATING    DOCKS  253 

point  to  meet  changing  conditions  and  exigencies,  and 
when  the  vessels  have  outgrown  the  capacity  of  the  dock, 
it  may  be  sold  and  replaced  by  one  of  larger  dimensions. 

The  dock  is  built  in  several  forms,  the  factor  fluctuating 
according  to  the  conditions  prevailing  at  the  harbour  to 
which  it  is  to  be  attached,  and  the  class  of  traffic  with  which 
it  is  intended  to  deal.  In  its  most  common  form  it  is 
shaped  like  a  flat-bottomed  u>  and  open  at  both  ends.  The 
walls  as  well  as  the  floor  are  hollow  for  submergence  to 
permit  the  vessel  to  be  floated  in,  and  lifted  merely  by 
emptying  the  water  from  the  walls  through  the  medium 
of  pumps. 

In  the  most  approved  type,  however,  the  whole  structure 
is  built  in  sections,  which  are  bolted  together  to  form  a 
continuous  whole.  Each  section  is  complete  and  isolated 
from  its  neighbour,  so  that  the  structure  is  divided,  as  it 
were,  into  a  series  of  compartments.  The  advantage  of 
this  system  is  that  when  repairs  to  the  dock  itself  become 
necessary,  they  may  be  carried  out  expeditiously  and  easily. 
All  that  is  required  is  to  release  the  section  demanding 
overhaul,  which  can  then  be  lifted  clear  of  the  water  by  the 
other  two  sections,  and  even  be  docked  high  and  dry  like 
a  vessel  to  afford  perfect  access  to  all  its  parts. 

There  is  practically  no  limit  to  the  dimensions  and  lifting 
capacity  of  these  docks  so  long  as  there  is  space  and  depth 
of  water  for  their  satisfactory  operation.  Indeed,  this  latter 
point  virtually  determines  whether  a  floating  dock  or  a 
permanent  structure  shall  be  selected.  Obviously,  if  a 
heavy  sum  has  to  be  expended  in  dredging  to  a  sufficient 
depth  to  permit  the  floating  dock  to  work,  the  cost  of  so 
doing  might  approximate  the  outlay  upon  a  permanent 
structure  to  achieve  the  same  end,  in  which  event  probably 
the  masonry  structure  would  be  preferable.  But  if  the 
sea-bed  is  of  such  a  character  that  sub-aqueous  prepara- 
tions are  certain  to  be  expensive,  then  the  advantages  are 
overwhelmingly  in  favour  of  the  floating  dock.  For  in- 
stance, when  dry-docking  facilities  for  the  navy  were  con- 
sidered to  be  imperative  at   Bermuda,   and  the  respective 


254    STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST  OF  THE   WORLD 

costs  of  the  two  systems  were  compared,  it  was  seen  that 
the  masonry  structure  would  be  abnormally  costly,  owing 
to  the  sea-bed  being  formed  of  hard  coral.  As  it  was,  the 
sum  of  ;^6o,ooQ  ($300,000)  had  to  be  devoted  to  prepare 
the  site  for  the  reception  of  the  floating  dock.  Whenever 
there  is  a  good  depth  of  water  available,  then  the  chances 
become  overwhelmingly  in  favour  of  the  floating  dock. 
When  the  subject  of  dry-docking  facilities  for  the  Pacific 
port  of  Prince  Rupert  were  discussed,  it  was  found  that  the 
floating  dock  would  meet  the  situation  more  economically 
owing  to  the  vast  area  of  the  harbour,  added  to  the 
fact  that,  if  a  permanent  structure  were  attempted,  the 
excavations  would  have  to  be  carried  to  a  great  depth 
through  hard,  solid  rock.  In  this  instance  the  conditions 
are  such  that  the  dock  can  be  moved  from  point  to  point 
within  the  harbour,  a  feature  which  appealed  very  strongly 
to  the  advocates  of  this  system. 

Several  large  docks  of  this  class  have  been  constructed 
and  are  in  operation  in  various  parts  of  the  world,  lifting 
vessels  up  to  46,000  tons  in  weight.  Another  feature  which 
adds  to  the  advantage  of  the  floating  type  is  the  rapidity 
with  which  vessels  may  be  raised.  A  tramp  of  3000  tons 
can  be  lifted  clear  of  the  water  in  thirty  minutes;  a  5000- 
tonner  in  three-quarters  of  an  hour;  a  io,ooo-ton  vessel  in 
ninety  minutes;  while  the  Olympic  could  be  lifted  clear  of 
the  water  in  about  six  hours.  A  permanent  graving  dock 
cannot  be  operated  at  anything  approaching  this  rate  of 
speed.  Before  a  vessel  is  able  to  enter  the  latter  the  dock 
must  be  emptied  to  permit  the  keel-blocks  to  be  laid  in 
position  for  her  reception.  Then  the  dock  is  filled,  the  ship 
floated  in,  and  the  water  once  more  pumped  out.  On  the 
other  hand,  as  the  normal  position  of  the  floating  dock  is 
"dry" — otherwise  with  her  floor  above  water — the  blocks 
may  be  prepared  the  moment  intimation  arrives  that  a 
certain  vessel  desires  docking,  so  that  by  the  time  the  ship 
comes  up  everything  is  ready  for  the  dock  to  be  lowered. 
There  is  another  favourable  feature.  The  vessel  requiring 
docking  may  be  beyond  the  lifting  capacity  of  the  dock  to 


FLOATING    DOCKS  255 

raise  her  clear  of  the  water,  and  yet  she  may  be  elevated 
sufficiently  for  the  submerged  part  of  the  hull  to  be 
given  the  requisite  attention ;  while  it  may  so  happen 
that  the  vessel  is  longer  than  the  dock,  but  nevertheless 
the  dock  may  be  used,  in  spite  of  the  overhang — in  other 
words,  the  dock  may  be  induced  to  fulfil  work  which  is 
really  beyond  it,  to  meet  an  emergency. 

The  U  -shape,  however,  is  but  one  form  adapted  to  work- 
ing in  tidal  waters,  and  for  the  largest  classes  of  vessels. 
For  smaller  craft,  and  in  non-tidal  waters  such  as  the  Great 
Lakes  and  inland  seas  generally,  the  L-shaped  dock  possesses 
great  conveniences.  This  dock  has  one  side  wall  removed, 
but  on  the  opposite  side  outriggers  are  attached  to  the  wall 
so  that  the  dock  may  not  cant  over  when  the  weight  of  a 
vessel  is  imposed.  Even  this  type  may  be  varied.  The 
outriggers  may  be  of  the  floating  type,  so  that  there  is  no 
interference  with  the  mobility  of  the  dock.  Again,  in  con- 
junction with  what  is  known  as  a  gridiron,  the  effectiveness 
of  the  dock  may  be  increased  extensively,  as  the  vessel, 
after  being  lifted  clear  of  the  water,  may  be  transferred 
to  one  of  the  gridirons. 

The  largest  and  most  successful  dock  of  this  type  is  in 
operation  at  Barcelona,  where  the  conditions  for  its  use  are 
ideal,  and  where  the  serviceability  of  the  system  is  revealed 
very  convincingly.  The  base  of  the  dock,  or  pontoon,  is 
not  made  up  in  the  form  of  one  continuous  piece  or  sections 
bolted  together,  but  comprises  a  series  of  pontoons  pro- 
jecting from  the  single  wall  like  fingers  from  the  hand. 
Each  finger  is  separated  from  its  neighbour  by  a  space 
equal  to  the  former's  width.  The  staging  forming  the  grid- 
iron, which  is  erected  along  the  foreshore,  is  built  up 
similarly,  with  spaces  between  each  horizontal  bar  as  wide 
as  the  dock  pontoon,  while  the  grids  correspond  in  width 
to  the  spaces  between  the  dock's  fingers.  The  docking 
process  is  the  same  as  with  the  other  types.  The  dock  is 
submerged  by  the  admittance  of  water  into  the  pontoons, 
the  vessel  is  warped  over  the  deck,  made  fast,  and  lifted 
by  emptying  the  pontoons.     When   the   vessel   has  been 


256    STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST  OF   THE   WORLD 

raised  high  and  dry,  the  dock,  with  its  load,  is  warped 
into  Hne  with  the  gridiron,  so  that  the  grids  come  opposite 
the  spaces  in  the  dock,  while  the  fingers  of  the  latter,in 
their  turn,  face  the  openings  in  the  staging.  The  dock  is 
then  pushed  or  hauled  home  sideways,  so  that  the  opposing 
fingers  slide  into  their  respective  openings  in  the  same 
manner  as  one  may  lock  one's  two  outstretched  hands. 
When  the  fingers  are  brought  right  home,  the  deck  of  the 
gridiron  appears  to  be  continuous,  and  the  vessel  is  trans- 
ferred from  supporting-blocks  on  the  dock  to  those  on  the 
bars  of  the  gridiron.  This  completed,  the  water  is  re- 
admitted into  the  dock,  once  more  causing  it  to  sink,  and 
the  vessel  is  left  perched  on  the  staging.  When  the  dock- 
fingers  have  dropped  clear  of  the  underside  of  the  gridiron 
bars,  the  dock  is  pulled  away,  and  is  now  available  for  the 
repair  of  another  vessel,  either  on  itself,  or  after  trans- 
ference to  another  stretch  of  gridiron.  In  a  large  harbour 
— say,  for  instance,  those  on  the  Great  Lakes  of  America — 
there  are  no  limits  to  the  application  of  this  system,  as 
miles  of  gridiron  may  be  laid  along  the  foreshore  to  carry 
several  vessels  simultaneously,  while  the  dock  itself  can  be 
employed  exclusively  for  docking  and  transferring  the 
vessels  to  the  permanent  staging.  In  transferring  the  ship 
back  to  the  water  the  foregoing  operations  are  reversed. 
It  may  seem  a  roundabout  process,  but  in  reality  the  whole 
operation  of  docking  and  transference  can  be  completed 
within  a  very  short  time.  The  gridirons  are  comparatively 
inexpensive,  and  may  be  extended  as  the  traffic  of  the  port 
develops. 

A  variation  of  this  system  is  the  off-shore  dock,  where, 
although  the  L-shape  is  preserved,  instead  of  the  structure 
being  mobile,  and  fitted  with  floating  outriggers,  it  is 
made  a  fixed  structure,  stability  being  secured  by  attach- 
ing the  dock  wall,  by  hinged  booms,  to  rigid  columns 
sunk  into  the  foreshore.  Here  the  dock  is  able  to  follow 
the  varying  level  of  the  water  due  to  the  rise  and  fall  of 
the  tides,  and  yet  retain  its  position.  Several  examples 
uf  this  class  of  floating  dock  have  been  erected  in  various 


FLOATING    DOCKS  257 

parts  of  the  world,  capable  of  handling  steamers  up  to  7000 
tons,  but  this  by  no  means  signifies  the  limit  of  its  applica- 
tion, as  the  11,000-ton  dock  at  Hamburg,  built  upon  this 
principle,  convincingly  demonstrates.  In  every  instance, 
however,  the  practice  is  to  make  the  appliance  comply  with 
the  features  of  the  self-docking  type,  so  that  any  one  of  the 
sections  of  which  it  is  composed  may  be  detached  and  be 
lifted  clear  of  the  water,  by  the  other  part,  for  cleaning  and 
repair. 

The  floating  dock  is  the  only  means  whereby  docking 
facilities  may  keep  pace  with  shipbuilding  progress,  unless 
a  port  is  resolved  to  get  well  ahead  of  the  times,  and 
provide  a  permanent  graving  dock  of  sufficient  size  to  meet 
requirements  for  many  years  to  come.  The  majority  of 
ports,  however,  are  not  as  a  rule  animated  by  such  a  spirit 
of  initiative,  as  it  necessitates  an  excavation  with  a  clear 
length  of  1,200  feet  by  about  120  feet  wide  and  between 
40  and  50  feet  deep. 

The  port  of  Hamburg  is  particularly  alive  to  the  advan- 
tages of  the  floating  dock.  At  the  present  time  it  has  some 
twenty  docks  in  operation,  the  largest  of  which  is  able  to 
handle  vessels  up  to  46,000  tons.  The  Germans  certainly 
have  not  hesitated  when  necessity  has  compelled  a  display 
of  initiative.  When  the  Deutschland  was  launched  there 
were  no  facilities  in  the  port  for  handling  her  in  this  way, 
in  the  event  of  an  accident.  Fearing  that,  owing  to  this 
deficiency,  she  might  be  sent  to  Great  Britain  for  repairs, 
one  firm  contracted  for  a  dock  large  enough  to  lift  her,  in 
order  to  be  ready  for  any  emergency.  Curiously  enough, 
the  opportunity  arose,  as  this  liner  met  with  a  mishap 
v»'hich  demanded  dry-docking.  Seeing  that  the  Hamburg- 
American  Line  is  engaged  in  the  construction  of  three 
liners  which  are  to  exceed  50,000  tons,  there  is  not  the 
slightest  doubt  that  the  port  will  be  provided  with  a  float- 
ing dock  sufficient  to  cope  with  this  development.  Both 
Southampton  and  Liverpool  are  anticipating  the  coming 
of  these  and  other  large  liners  which  are  now  on  the  stocks 
or  under  contemplation  by  the  construction  of  masonry 
s 


258     STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST  OF   THE   WORLD 

graving  docks,  but  other  ports  are  at  present  marking  time. 
When  the  Lusitania  and  Mauretania  appeared,  and  it  was 
thought  that  they  might  make  their  home  port  on  the 
South  of  England  coast,  designs  for  a  floating  dock  capable 
of  lifting  these  32,000-ton ners  were  prepared,  the  cost  of 
which  was  placed  at  about  ;^26o,ooo  ($1,300,000). 

As  the  designing  of  these  docks  is  a  peculiar  British 
engineering  speciality,  so  is  their  construction.  The 
majority  of  those  now  in  service  have  come  from  the  Tyne 
yards  of  Swan,  Hunter,  &  Wigham  Richardson,  Limited, 
and  this  firm  has  placed  on  record  some  very  smart  con- 
structional performances,  which  incidentally  have  empha- 
sised another  advantage  in  favour  of  this  means  of  docking 
a  ship.  The  largest  type  of  dock  may  be  completed  within 
a  year.  The  io,ooo-ton  dock  required  for  Havana  was 
built  in  these  Tyneside  yards  and  handed  over  to  the 
authorities  at  its  destination  within  eleven  months  of 
the  placing  of  the  contract.  The  ii,ooo-ton  dock  which  the 
port  of  Stettin  required  post-haste  was  built  in  7J  months, 
was  towed  across  the  sea,  and  lifted  the  first  ship 
within  eight  months.  This  was  a  notable  achievement, 
as  the  builders  beat  their  contracted  time  by  one  month, 
nine  months  having  been  allotted  for  fulfilment  of  the 
undertaking. 

As  Great  Britain  acts  somewhat  in  the  capacity  of 
universal  provider  in  respect  of  these  invaluable  adjuncts 
to  the  mercantile  marine,  some  remarkable  towing  feats 
have  been  placed  on  record  in  connection  with  their 
delivery  to  various  ports  of  the  world.  A  dock  capable 
of  lifting  12,000,  16,500  or  25,000  tons  is  an  unwieldy  craft 
to  drag  across  wild  stretches  of  ocean,  and  the  special 
vessels  which  are  selected  for  this  service  appear  to  be  far 
too  puny  to  keep  such  a  structure  under  control  in  case  of 
rough  weather.  But  in  this  instance  size  is  by  no  means 
any  criterion  of  power,  inasmuch  as  tiiese  ocean-going  tugs 
can  battle  against  the  wildest  seas  and  yet  keep  iiold  of 
their  ungainly  charges.  They  think  no  more  of  hauling 
a  monster  floating  dock  across  the  greatest  breadth  of  the 


TIIK    HAKCKI.ONA    I'l.OATING    DOCK    AND    tlRIDIKON 

(i)  Vessel  raised  on  floating  dock.     (2)  Vessel  transferred    from  dock  to  gridiron. 
(3)  Section  of  dock  itself  lifted  for  overhaul,  showing  finger-like  pontoons. 


FLOATING    DOCKS  259 

Atlantic  and  rounding  the  sinister  waters  washing  Cape 
Horn,  than  of  running  a  matter  of  291  miles  across  the 
North  Sea  from  the  Tyne  to  Rotterdam.  It  is  very  seldom 
that  any  mishap  befalls  such  an  enterprise,  or  that  the 
helpless  craft  breaks  from  its  leashes.  One  such  accident 
did  occur  while  a  dock  was  on  its  way  from  Britain  to 
South  Africa.  A  heavy  storm  rose,  and  the  tow-ropes 
parted.  The  tugs  struggled  hard  to  regain  their  load,  but 
without  avail,  and  the  dock  came  to  grief.  One  of  the 
greatest  feats  of  this  character  was  the  towage  of  the  Dewey 
dock  from  the  American  yards  to  the  Philippines.  Another 
was  the  haulage  of  the  7000-ton  dock  from  the  Tyne  to 
Callao,  a  distance  of  10,260  nautical  miles,  involving  the 
negotiation  of  Cape  Horn.  The  16,500-ton  dock  consti- 
tuted a  heavy  risk  to  underwriters  during  its  conveyance 
over  4,065  nautical  miles  from  the  Tyne  to  Bermuda;  while 
the  handling  of  the  25,000-ton  floating  dock  on  its  voyage 
of  5,200  miles  across  the  Atlantic  to  Rio  de  Janeiro  was  a 
very  smart  achievement. 

The  maintenance  and  repair  charges  are  very  low,  as 
experience  has  proved,  as  are  also  the  expenses  of  opera- 
tion. An  oflf-shore  dock  360  feet  long,  capable  of  handling 
vessels  up  to  3,600  tons,  and  lilted  with  electrically  driven 
pumping-plant,  can  lift  a  ship  high  and  dry  for  less  than 
a  sovereign,  or  say  five  dollars,  with  electric  current  costing 
three-halfpence,  or  three  cents,  per  unit.  Maintenance 
charges  are  about  r66  per  cent,  of  the  initial  cost  per 
annum.  Thus  a  dock  capable  of  lifting  the  giant  Cunarders 
would  absorb  about  ^4,316,  or  $21,580  per  annum  under 
this  heading.  This  charge  varies  with  the  situation  of  the 
dock  and  the  character  of  the  water  in  which  it  is  used,  as 
obviously  some  waters  exercise  greater  destructive  pro- 
perties upon  the  steel  than  others.  For  instance,  severe 
rust  is  set  up  by  the  landlocked,  tideless  waters  of  Havana, 
while  at  Hamburg  no  signs  of  serious  rusting  are  observ- 
able after  14  years.  The  Callao  dock,  which  was  of  early 
design,  and  whicli  has  seen  over  40  years'  service,  absorbed 
o"73  per  cent,  of  its  initial  cost  per  annum,  this  sum  being 
s  2 


26o     STEAMSHIP  CONQUEST   OF  THE   WORLD 

inclusive  of  two  complete  overhauls  which  were  effected 
during  this  period. 

It  is  apparent  that  the  floating  dock  affords  the  only 
economical  solution,  generally  speaking,  of  meeting  the 
increasing  sizes  of  vessels  with  docking  facilities.  So  long 
as  the  shipbuilder  is  supported  in  his  developments,  and 
the  money  is  forthcoming,  larger  and  larger  vessels  will 
be  built,  and  it  is  the  country  which  keeps  pace  with  this 
progress  which  eventually  will  receive  the  cream  of  the 
trade.  If  one  port  will  decline  to  meet  the  needs  of  the 
shipbuilder  and  shipowner,  another,  more  enterprising 
and  which  does  not  attempt  to  arrest  the  wheels  of  pro- 
gress, will  benefit.  Keen  competition  prevails  among  the 
big  ports  of  the  world  for  the  ocean  liner's  patronage.  This 
was  revealed  by  tlie  action  of  the  New  York  Harbour 
authorities  when  the  Olympic  made  her  appearance.  They 
did  not  feel  disposed  to  incur  the  expense  of  lengthening 
the  piers  to  receive  this  liner,  hoping  thereby  that  they 
miglit  check  shipbuilding  ambitions.  Instantly  Boston 
offered  to  provide  what  facilities  were  required,  and  an  effort 
was  made  to  create  a  new  port  at  Montauk  Point,  Long 
Island.  What  applies  to  piers  also  applies  to  docks,  and 
the  inability  of  any  dock  in  North  American  waters  to 
receive  a  modern  mammoth  liner  reveals  the  fact  only  too 
well  that  every  port  worthy  of  the  name  must  be  provided 
with  facilities  to  enable  the  largest  ship  afloat  to  be  laid 
bare  whenever  tlie  necessity  arises.  Taken  on  the  whole, 
the  floating  dock  is  the  cheapest  means  by  which  this  end 
may  be  consummated. 


CHAPTER    XIX 

THE   SURVEYOR   OF  THE   SEA  AND   HIS   ADVENTUROUS  CALLING 

We  admire  the  calculations  of  the  ship-designer,  the 
ingenuity  of  the  inventor,  the  skill  and  workmanship  of 
the  shipbuilder,  and  the  prowess  of  the  navigator.  Yet 
the  efforts  of  one  and  all  would  count  for  nought,  but  for 
the  labour  of  the  hydrographical  surveyor.  Ocean  grey- 
hounds with  their  high  speeds  would  be  useless  without 
charts  for  their  guidance ;  sea  travelling  would  be  the  most 
dangerous  system  of  transportation  extant  if  the  coasts 
and  seas  were  unmapped. 

The  average  person  knows  nothing  about  the  sea-sur- 
veyor and  his  work.  Probably  he  is  quite  unaware  of  the 
existence  of  such  a  labourer  in  the  interests  of  the  world's 
progress.  This  worker  does  not  come  into  the  blind- 
ing glare  of  publicity.  He  prosecutes  his  task  silently 
and  diligently  in  the  background,  braving  dangers  untold, 
surmounting  abnormal  obstacles,  and  incurring  risks  which 
are  encountered  in  few  other  walks  of  life.  He  is  exposed 
daily  to  the  ravages  of  climate,  to  the  crippling  effects  of 
many  of  the  worst  diseases  knovv'n  to  medical  science,  the 
battering  of  wind  and  wave,  the  hostility  of  mankind,  and 
to  death  in  some  of  its  most  awful  forms. 

The  life  has  a  peculiar  and  bewitching  fascination  for 
restless  spirits  of  scientific  attainments  and  with  a  love  for 
adventurous  exploration.  The  toll  exacted  by  Nature  in 
the  probing  of  her  secrets  is  heavy,  but  this  penalty  offers 
no  deterrent.  The  versatility  of  the  work  also  tends  to 
make  an  irresistible  appeal ;  one  engaged  therein  is  taken 
into  the  most  out-of-the-way  corners  of  the  world.  To- 
day the  hydrographical  surveyor  may  be  busily  sounding 
the  entrance  to  a  bustling  port  :  next  year  he  is  imprisoned 
in  the  lonely  frigidity  of  the  Arctic  or  Antarctic  circles  : 

261 


262     STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST   OF   THE    WORLD 

a  little  later  with  his  theodolite  and  sounding  appliances 
he  is  creeping  up  an  African  or  South  American  dismal 
waterway,  through  swamps  and  malarial  lagoons ;  thence 
he  is  sent  to  the  dreary  wastes  of  the  Northern  Pacific,  or 
to  seek  for  channels  among  the  coral  reefs  and  forbidding 
islets  guarding  the  Australian  continent. 

One  might  be  inclined  to  think  that  the  whole  of  the 
navigated  seas  and  coasts  of  to-day  had  been  explored  and 
charted,  but  this  is  far  from  being  the  case.  Thousands 
of  square  miles  of  salt  water  between  the  outermost  boun- 
daries of  the  frigid  zones  remain  to  be  explored,  and 
hundreds  of  miles  of  tortuous  coastline  fringing  the  five 
continents  still  await  triangulation.  This  is  not  all.  The 
world  is  changing  its  contour  constantly  through  the 
agency  of  its  internal  forces.  The  water  conceals  from 
sight  exactly  what  is  happening  below.  Valleys  are  being 
carved  here,  and  submarine  mountains  are  being  formed 
somewhere  else.  Currents  and  tides  collect  sand  at  this 
point  to  deposit  it  in  the  form  of  a  shoal  at  that  place. 
Even  the  coasts  do  not  remain  constant.  The  hungry  sea 
gnaws  away  miles  of  foreshore  at  one  spot  to  throw  it  up 
again  elsewhere.  The  greatest  difficulty  confronting  the 
hydrographical  departments  of  the  Powers  having  mercan- 
tile interests  at  stake,  is  that  of  keeping  the  guiding  charts 
and  maps  for  their  navigators  up-to-date. 

This  charting  of  the  seas  and  coasts  is  a  service 
attached  to  the  Admiralty,  and  the  men  engaged  in  it 
are  drawn  from  the  officers  on  active  service,  in  many 
instances  at  the  request  of  those  who  cherish  a  fancy  for 
this  scientific  labour.  Every  nation  possessing  a  coastline 
retains  special  vessels  for  this  peculiar  work,  equipped  with 
all  requisite  appliances  and  a  small  select  staff.  Great 
Britain,  whose  shipping  overbalances  that  of  any  com- 
mercial rival,  has  the  greatest  interests  at  stake.  Accord- 
ingly she  is  particularly  active  in  mapping  out  the  oceans, 
her  forces  engaged  therein  being  scattered  in  all  parts  of 
the  world.  At  the  end  of  191 1  no  fewer  than  11  sur- 
veying ships,  ranging  from  410  to   1,300  tons,  and  from 


THE    SURVEYOR    OF    THE    SEA  263 

350  to  2,100  horse-power,  were  actively  at  work.  Of  this 
total,  5  were  retained  for  service  in  home  waters,  while 
the  other  6  were  distributed  all  over  the  globe,  from  the 
shores  of  Newfoundland  to  the  Strait  Settlements  and 
Australian  waters.  The  work  gave  employment  to  83 
officers,  of  whom  61  were  surveyors,  and  engaged  an 
aggregate  crew  of  796  men.  In  the  course  of  the  year 
191 1  these  vessels  and  surveyors  reported  no  fewer  than 
442  rocks  and  shoals  as  dangerous  to  navigation,  while  36 
places  which  had  been  reported  previously  as  dangerous, 
and  had  been  charted,  were  expunged  as  being  non- 
existent. In  the  course  of  this  12  months  906  miles  of 
coastline  were  charted,  soundings  were  made  over  an  area 
of  5,495  square  miles,  and  the  results  committed  to  paper. 
The  foregoing  work  is  exclusive  of  that  carried  out  by  the 
Marine  Survey  of  India,  which  is  independent,  2  vessels 
being  retained  for  this  service,  with  10  officers  under  a 
commander,  and  a  total  crew  of  178  men.  This  organisa- 
tion charted  212  miles  of  coastline  as  well  as  sounding 
2,819  square  miles  of  ocean  in  the  above  period,  so  that 
some  idea  of  the  activity  of  the  British  Hydrographical 
Service  may  be  obtained.  The  United  States  also  retains 
a  complete,  although  smaller  service,  as  its  duties  are  more 
limited,  while  Germany,  France  and  Russia  also  possess 
their  trained  corps  of  sea-surveyors. 

The  British  Hydrographical  Department  perhaps  is  the 
oldest  of  its  kind  among  the  nations  of  the  world, 
and  its  collection  of  maps  and  charts  is  far  and  away  the 
most  comprehensive,  complete  and  varied.  Many  illus- 
trious explorers  and  builders  of  empire,  familiar  to  history, 
were  at  one  time  or  another  connected  with  the  British 
sea-surveying  work.  Among  these  may  be  mentioned 
Captain  Cook,  Captain  Vancouver,  Sir  John  Ross,  Sir 
John  Franklin,  Sir  William  Parry,  whose  voyages  of  dis- 
covery and  exploration  are  so  well  known.  All  these  men 
followed  the  sea-surveyor's  calling,  and  accomplished 
excellent  work,  as  well  as  accumulating  valuable  experience 
before  embarking  upon  their  historic  expeditions. 


264     STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

The  story  of  exploring  the  depths  of  the  sea  constitutes 
one  of  the  most  fascinating  romances  it  is  possible  to  con- 
ceive ;  its  narration  would  fill  volumes.  For  the  most  part 
these  stirring  tales  are  buried  in  official  reports,  or  in  the 
archives  of  learned  and  scientific  institutions,  but  here  and 
there  glimpses  of  the  thrills  and  sensations  incidental  to 
the  task  are  set  out  in  volumes  which  the  surveyors  wTOtc 
upon  return  from  unusual  expeditions  or  exciting  journeys. 

One  hundred  years  ago  the  task  was  full  of  excitement. 
Fighting  and  charting  went  on  side  by  side.  The  calling 
was  extremely  hazardous,  as  it  carried  the  men  into 
dangerous  zones,  where  often  they  were  compelled  to  cease 
abruptly,  and  to  make  good  their  escape  in  a  running 
fight.  At  other  times  the  men  were  surprised  while  follow- 
ing their  occupation  of  sounding,  and  captured.  The 
ordinary  prisoner  of  war  was  wont  to  chafe  at  his  incar- 
ceration, but  others,  who  were  familiar  with  the  surveying 
work,  turned  their  enforced  idleness  to  profitable  account. 
There  was  Commander  Tuckey.  After  an  exciting  early 
life  at  sea,  during  the  troublous  times  of  the  closing  years 
of  the  eighteenth  century,  he  was  on  the  Calcutta  home- 
ward bound,  under  Captain  Woodriff  with  a  convoy. 
They  were  surprised  by  the  French  fleet,  and  to  save  the 
convoy  Woodriff  showed  fight.  He  engaged  the  whole  of 
the  opposing  squadron,  and  although  the  Calcutta  was 
compelled  by  sheer  force  of  numbers  to  strike  her  colours, 
the  ruse  proved  successful,  since  the  merchantmen  under 
her  charge  got  clear.  Tuckey,  then  a  lieutenant,  found 
himself  a  prisoner  of  war.  Naturally  he  resented  his  im- 
prisonment, but  he  set  to  work  and  compiled  four  large 
volumes  on  Maritime  Geography  and  Statistics  to  pass 
away  his  enforced  idleness.  Upon  his  return  to  England 
these  volumes  were  published,  and  were  found  to  be  an 
excellent  work  of  reference  and  full  of  useful  hydro- 
graphical  information. 

Subsequently  Tuckey  was  entrusted  with  the  survey  of 
the  River  Congo.  For  this  purpose  a  special  vessel  of 
lOo   tons  and   drawing   4   feet   of   water   was   built.     Bell 


THE    SURVEYOR    OF    THE    SEA  265 

had  demonstrated  the  utility  of  steam  propulsion  for  ships 
upon  the  Clyde  two  years  before,  and  it  was  decided  to 
equip  this  craft,  christened  the  Congo,  with  a  steam  engine 
and  paddles  to  enable  her  to  make  way  more  easily  against 
rapids  and  currents  in  the  river.  This  was  to  be  of  24 
horse-power  and  was  to  give  the  boat  a  speed  of  5  knots 
per  hour.  The  engine  was  built  by  Boulton  and  Watt, 
but  was  never  used.  Either  through  the  machinery  ex- 
ceeding the  contracted  weight,  or  because  the  vessel  drew 
more  than  the  designed  depth  of  water,  the  engines  were 
taken  out,  and  the  Congo  proceeded  under  sail.  Tuckey 
forced  his  way  150  miles  up  the  African  waterway  in  his 
vessel,  making  careful  observations  meanwhile,  but  being 
unable  to  make  headway  against  the  vicious  currents  left 
his  ship  and  pushed  on  in  boats  to  the  cataract  "Yellala's 
Wife."  Here  the  small  boats  had  to  be  abandoned,  the 
party  continuing  afoot  along  the  banks  of  the  waterway 
until  they  gained  a  point  280  miles  from  the  mouth.  Then 
disaster  overwhelmed  them  :  the  men  fell  victims  to  the 
terrible  climate.  Fever  broke  out  and  there  was  a  mourn- 
ful retreat.  The  Congo  was  regained,  but  the  disease  had 
not  completed  its  deadly  w-ork.  Tuckey,  tw'o  officers,  ten 
of  the  crew,  the  botanist,  geologist,  zoologist,  as  well  as 
a  scientific  gentleman  who  had  volunteered  to  accompany 
the  expedition,  succumbed.  It  was  a  disastrous  venture, 
but  valuable  work  was  accomplished. 

One  of  the  most  prodigious  surveyors  the  service  has 
ever  had  was  Vice-Admiral  W.  F.  Owen.  In  the  course 
of  five  years  he  traced  30,000  miles  of  coastline  around  the 
African  continent,  the  results  of  which  he  communicated 
in  83  charts.  He  joined  the  navy  in  1788,  saw  active 
service  under  Lord  Howe  on  the  Glorious  First  of  June, 
played  a  prominent  part  in  the  famous  Spithead  Mutiny, 
for  w^hich  he  was  promoted,  and  when  not  fighting  the 
French  off  the  Indian  coast,  was  exploring  the  channels 
around  the  Maldive  Islands.  Finally  he  was  captured, 
spent  two  years  in  captivity  on  the  Mauritius,  and  came 
home  convoying  a  fleet  of  merchantmen  from  China. 


266     STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST   OF   THE    WORLD 

Peace  supervening,  Owen  was  deputed  to  the  work  he 
loved  so  much.  He  was  sent  to  Canada  and  commenced 
the  survey  of  the  Great  Lakes,  continuing  until  1816,  when 
he  entered  the  Hydrographical  Office  in  London.  Five 
years  later  saw  him  on  active  survey  once  more,  with  a 
staff  of  accomplished  nautical  assistants  off  the  African 
coast.  Lively  times  were  experienced.  He  was  crawling 
up  the  Mahong  River  sounding  and  taking  triangles  when 
the  Zulus,  not  understanding  the  import  of  the  curious 
duties,  gave  him  a  warm  reception  with  assegais.  The 
attitude  of  the  natives  became  so  furious  that  at  the  end 
of  forty-six  miles  he  returned  to  the  coast.  One  of  his 
right-hand  men  died  under  the  terrible  climate,  followed 
shortly  afterwards  by  two  others. 

The  expedition  now  ran  a  flying  survey  of  the  coast, 
only  to  lose  two  more  capable  members  of  the  party  from 
disease.  Mozambique  was  visited  together  with  a  few 
other  islands,  and  then  the  party  returned  to  English  River 
to  discover  that  its  tender  Cockburn,  which  had  been  left 
here  with  twenty  officers  and  men,  had  a  roll  of  only  seven 
left,  disease  having  swept  off  the  others.  The  party  then 
made  for  Simon's  Bay,  where  the  Cockburn  fouled  a  reef 
and  became  a  total  wreck. 

Later,  Owen  decided  to  examine  the  coast  of  the  con- 
tinent lying  between  Zanzibar  and  Cape  Guardafui.  On 
this  expedition  he  was  bowled  over  with  rheumatic  fever, 
contracted  from  the  pernicious  land  wind,  which  produces 
a  stroke  of  what  is  known  as  "the  blat."  Having  re- 
covered, he  next  concentrated  his  energy  upon  the  survey 
of  Madagascar,  lost  his  principal  hydrographer  from 
dysentery,  had  to  land  another  of  his  staff  who  was  stricken 
down  with  a  dangerous  attack  of  yellow  fever,  w^hile  two 
officers  on  the  boat  which  had  been  purchased  to  take 
the  place  of  the  wrecked  Cockburn  were  murdered  by 
natives  while  engaged  in  their  work.  More  men  were  lost 
before  Owen  decided  to  make  the  dangerous  survey  of  the 
coast  between  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  the  Congo 
estuary.      From    its   pestilential    climate    Africa   has    long 


THE    SURVEYOR    OF   THE    SEA  267 

been  known  as  the  "White  Man's  Grave,"  but  the  descrip- 
tion was  never  more  true  than  in  those  days.  If  it  were 
not  scurvy  contracted  on  board  from  subsistence  upon  salt 
foods  which  claimed  victims,  it  was  malaria  and  fevers  of 
all  descriptions  which  developed  while  making  triangula- 
tions  upon  shore.  Owen  suffered  severely  from  these 
ravages.  While  coming  up  the  west  coast  making  surveys 
of  its  indentations,  river  estuaries,  anchorages  and  islands, 
he  lost  man  after  man.  The  mortality  was  so  frightful  that 
the  survivors  were  not  sorry  when  at  last  the  party  headed 
for  home.  But  Owen  had  not  finished  his  work  by  any 
means.  He  made  another  visit  to  North  America,  after  a 
journey  to  Fernando  Po,  where  all  but  three  of  the  gun- 
room officers  and  forty7six  of  the  crew  were  claimed  by 
disease.  On  the  opposite  side  of  the  North  Atlantic  he 
accomplished  excellent  work,  preparing  charts  of  the  St. 
Lawrence  River,  Lake  Ontario,  Toronto  Harbour,  and  the 
Bay  of  Fundy. 

Curiously  enough,  in  the  early  days  the  work  of  these 
hardy  and  daring  plotters  of  coast  and  sea  was  not  issued 
by  the  Admiralty.  The  publication  of  the  maps  and  charts 
was  left  to  private  enterprise.  Subsequently  many  of  the 
copper  plates,  from  which  the  navigation  guides  were 
prepared,  were  purchased  by  the  Admiralty  when  the 
Hydrographical  Department  was  set  upon  a  firm  footing. 
The  men  in  London  also  were  paid  weekly,  like  the  clerks 
in  a  merchant's  office,  and  there  certainly  was  no  per- 
manency in  their  respective  positions.  A  curious  example 
of  this  official  parsimony  in  regard  to  maps  and  charts  was 
manifested  on  the  occasion  of  the  death  of  Alexander 
Dalrymple.  As  chief  hydrographer  he  had  prepared  a 
magnificent  collection  of  copper  engraved  plates  for  map 
printing  and  general  information  in  regard  to  hydro- 
graphy. In  his  will  he  offered  his  life's  work  for  sale, 
first  to  the  East  India  Company,  in  w-hose  service  he  started 
life,  and  then  to  the  Admiralty.  Both  declined,  owing  to 
the  price  demanded,  and  finally  the  plates  were  sold  by 
auction,   the  copper  realising  a  scrap  price  to  be  melted 


268     STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST   OF   THE    WORLD 

down.  Through  the  exertions  of  a  gentleman  these  valu- 
able plates  were  spared  this  undignified  end,  and  were 
obtained  privately  for  the  Government. 

The  sea-surveyor  is  a  man  of  infinite  resource,  grim 
determination,  and  entertains  a  very  light  regard  for  his 
health  or  his  safety,  so  long  as  he  achieves  his  object. 
One  expedition  was  dispatched  to  the  Persian  Gulf  to 
prepare  records  of  the  danger  spots  in  its  treacherous 
waters  and  along  its  forbidding  coastline.  The  surveyor 
was  unable  to  carry  out  his  work  in  one  of  the  ship's  boats, 
so  was  compelled  to  make  use  of  a  native  craft.  In  this  he 
moved  to  and  fro,  day  after  day,  exposed  to  the  elements. 
The  argo  was  by  no  means  v.ater-tight,  having  passed  long 
ago  its  span  of  usefulness,  so  the  unlucky  surveyor  was 
forced  to  squat  down  with  the  water  over  his  ankles,  as  he 
committed  his  observations  to  paper.  It  is  not  surprising 
that  some  two  years'  labours  under  these  conditions  played 
sad  havoc  with  his  health.  Another  surveyor  had  a  more 
exciting  time.  He  had  to  land  upon  this  coast  to  accom- 
plish his  work.  He  was  surrounded  by  the  natives  as  they 
suspected  that  he  was  upon  mischief  bent.  When  they 
saw  that  he  was  a  Britisher,  and  was  by  no  means  hostile, 
they  did  him  no  harm,  but  hung  around  him  like  wolves, 
watching  his  every  movement.  Fortunately  hydrography 
was  a  science  beyond  their  intelligence,  and  they  did  not 
interfere  with  his  movements,  except  when  he  drew  out  his 
pencil  and  note-book  to  make  records  of  his  observations. 
Native  suspicion  assumed  a  formidable  form  :  the  sur- 
veyor's notes  were  seized.  As  no  one  could  fathom  his 
peculiar  hieroglyphics,  it  was  deemed  advisable  by  the 
crafty  natives  to  secure  safety  in  their  destruction,  and 
the  hydrographical  surveyor  was  warned  that  he  would 
meet  with  different  treatment  if  caught  writing  again. 
The  natives  were  convinced  that  he  was  not  there  for  their 
benefit.  Yet  the  surveyor  accomplished  his  object.  With 
a  stub  of  pencil,  less  than  two  inches  long,  he  recorded 
the  results  of  his  observations  upon  his  shirt  cuffs  and 
sleeves,    the    keen-eyed    natives    never    dreaming    for    a 


THE   SURVEYOR    OF   THE    SEA  269 

moment,  when  they  saw  the  officer  apparently  rubbing  his 
linen,  that  he  was  helping  his  memory  with  conclusive 
written  notes.  When  he  departed  his  shirt  was  as  spotted 
with  figures  and  rough  geometrical  shorthand  notes  as  a 
Dalmatian  hound. 

The  sea-surveyor  is  a  man  of  many  parts.  He  not  only 
records  the  position  of  submerged  rocks  and  otlier  menaces 
of  the  deep,  as  well  as  the  form  of  the  coastline;  he  is  a 
botanist,  zoologist,  geologist  and  handy  man  of  science 
combined.  He  will  investigate  the  movements  of  currents 
and  tides,  probe  the  innermost  recesses  of  the  sea  to  dis- 
cover its  life  and  characteristics,  and  haul  up  samples  of 
the  sea  bed  from  a  depth  of  two  miles  or  more  to  deter- 
mine its  composition.  Now  and  agaift  he  will  land  at  a 
lonely  spot  to  make  experiments  for  additional  informa- 
tion upon  the  figure  of  the  earth.  Or  he  will  carry  out 
astronomical  surveys  to  throw  further  light  upon  certain 
phenomena.  Elaborate  precautions  will  be  taken  and 
arrangements  made  to  decide  the  longitude  of  a  certain 
point,  or  investigations  will  be  effected  to  define  whether 
a  certain  rock  does  or  does  not  afifect  the  magnetic  pro- 
perties of  the  compass,  a  belief  often  entertained  by  a 
captain  to  explain  his  deviation  from  a  certain  charted 
course. 

For  instance,  during  1880,  in  the  height  of  the  summer,  the 
survey  ship  Knight  Errant  carried  out  a  series  of  sound- 
ings between  Rona,  north  of  the  Hebrides,  the  Faeroe 
Islands  and  the  Nun  Rock,  north  of  Cape  Wrath,  off  the 
coast  of  Ireland,  as  the  charts  of  this  region  were  inter- 
spersed with  blanks,  showing  where  further  soundings  were 
required.  This  work  threw  some  interesting  light  upon 
the  subjects  of  ocean  circulation  and  the  distribution  of 
marine  life  at  great  depths.  Between  Rona  and  the 
Faeroe  Islands  the  bed  of  the  Atlantic  rises  to  a  large  hump 
less  than  600  feet  below  the  surface.  The  leads  and  the 
thermometers  were  dropped  first  on  the  Arctic  side  of  the 
ridge,  and  the  temperatures  of  39"  and  40'^  Fahrenheit  were 
recorded  at  a  depth  of  1,200  feet.     When  the  instruments 


270    STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST  OF  THE   WORLD 

were  dropped  on  the  south  or  Atlantic  side  under  the 
same  conditions,  the  temperature  did  not  fall  below  42° 
Fahrenheit. 

On  another  occasion,  owing  to  captains  having  reported 
strange  variations  of  the  compass  needle  off  the  Australian 
coast,  the  survey  ship  Penguin,  stationed  in  these  waters, 
set  off  to  investigate  this  phenomenon.  The  point  where 
extreme  interference  had  been  noted  was  found,  but  to  the 
intense  disappointment  of  the  officers  nothing  unusual  was 
noted.  Suddenly,  as  they  were  passing  Bezout  Island,  the 
north  point  of  the  compass  moved  two  points  to  the  left, 
and  examination  revealed  a  centre  of  magnetic  attraction. 
The  ship  moved  to  and  fro  over  the  disturbance  to  find  the 
needle  swinging  vit)lently  first  23°  to  the  left  and  then  55° 
to  the  right,  while  what  is  known  as  a  dipping  needle  was 
affected  just  as  intensely.  Soundings  were  taken,  and  the 
depth  of  water  was  found  to  be  63  feet,  the  sea-bed  being 
composed  of  quartz  and  shells.  When  the  magnetic  in- 
struments were  set  up  on  Bezout  Island,  two  miles  west 
of  the  focus  of  disturbance,  nothing  untoward  was  noted, 
but  directly  they  returned  to  the  spot  the  agitation  was 
repeated.  The  disturbances  were  certainly  remarkable,  and 
this  centre  constitutes  one  of  the  strongest  local  magnetic 
attractions  known  in  the  world,  while  it  was  found  to  be 
purely  local.  Unless  a  ship  happens  to  pass  very  closely 
to  the  spot  its  compass  escapes  affection. 

Defining  the  longitude  of  a  certain  spot  is  another 
elaborate  operation  which  falls  within  the  province  of  the 
hydrographer.  The  Pengu'ui  was  requisitioned  for  this 
purpose  during  the  year  1890  to  decide  the  difference  of 
longitude  between  Roebuck  Bay  and  Adelaide.  The 
telegraph  connecting  the  two  points,  extending  for  a 
distance  of  3,567  miles,  was  reserved  solely  and  exclusively 
for  the  operation  for  an  hour  and  a  half  on  October  31. 
The  probabilities  of  the  test  being  successful  were  regarded 
as  slender,  but  thirty-eight  perfect  signals  were  sent  from 
end  to  end,  each  signal  occupying  about  one-third  of  a 
second  in  its  transmission.     The  longitude  obtained  in  this 


THE    SURVEYOR    OF   THE    SEA  271 

manner  agreed  with  the  previous  measurements  so  far  as 
Baudin  Island  was  concerned,  but  the  location  of  Roebuck 
Bay  was  corrected  by  about  half-a-mile.  This  error  was 
remarkably  small,  considering  the  roundabout  means  that 
had  to  be  followed  in  the  previous  determination,  and  testi- 
fied to  the  care  with  which  the  calculations  had  been  made. 
When  the  British  Astronomer  Royal,  Sir  George  Airy, 
determined  the  absolute  longitude  of  Valentia,  the  little 
island  off  the  coast  of  Kerry,  where  the  Atlantic  cables 
come  ashore,  thirty  chronometers  were  carried  to  and  fro 
twenty-two  times  before  the  mathematician  was  satisfied. 
Nowadays,  by  the  aid  of  wireless  telegraphy,  this  delicate 
and  hitherto  difficult  task  may  be  accomplished  very  easily 
and  quickly.  The  most  ambitious  operation  in  this  con- 
nection was  between  Paris  and  Tunis.  Wireless  signals 
were  dispatched  between  clocks  at  each  place,  the  com- 
parison of  which  determined  the  longitude.  The  signals 
travelled  from  Paris  to  Tunis  in  the  ttjW  P^rt  of  a  second, 
which  is  equal  to  a  velocity  of  nearly  200,000  miles  per 
second. 

The  days  of  exciting  adventure  in  sea-surveying  are  by 
no  means  over.  From  time  to  time  thrilling  experiences 
are  related.  There  was  the  little  party  under  Captain 
Tyson  of  the  United  States  Hydrographical  Department, 
which  sailed  north  in  the  Polaris  to  investigate  the  ice 
phenomena.  The  commander,  together  with  nineteen  of 
his  crew,  became  separated  from  the  ship  near  the  77th 
parallel,  just  south  of  Littleton  Island. 

Unable  to  regain  their  vessel,  they  stuck  to  the  floe, 
which  to  their  dismay  commenced  to  drift.  It  was  an 
uncanny  position  ;  the  little  party  expected  every  succeeding 
minute  on  their  unenviable  journey  southwards  to  be  their 
last,  from  danger  of  grounding,  collision  with  another  berg, 
disintegration,  or  from  one  of  a  hundred  other  forces  which 
bring  about  the  destruction  of  these  visitors  in  the  northern 
regions.  They  subsisted  as  best  they  could,  and  were  kept 
dangling  upon  the  thread  of  suspense  for  six  months,  when 
they  were  picked  up  by  the  Tigress  on  April  30,  1872,  near 


272    STEAMSHIP  CONQUEST  OF  THE   WORLD 

the  Strait  of  Belleisle.  They  had  accomplished  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  and  sensational  journeys  on  record, 
having  covered  1,500  miles  on  this  floe.  Had  they  not 
been  sighted  by  the  crew  of  the  Newfoundland  sealer  the 
chances  are  that  they  would  never  have  been  heard  of 
again,  as  they  were  hastening  to  the  southern  latitudes 
where  the  floes  break  up  and  disappear  very  rapidly  under 
the  summer  sun  and  the  warm  waters  of  the  Gulf  Stream. 
They  were  picked  up  in  latitude  53°  35',  near  the  great 
steamship  lanes,  and  were  safely  taken  into  port,  little  the 
worse  for  their  extraordinary  adventure. 

A  more  diabolical  fate  awaited  Lieutenant  James  St.  John 
Bower  during  his  investigations  with  the  British  survey 
ship  Sandfly  among  the  Solomon  Islands.  He  was  a 
highly  skilled  and  daring  surveyor  of  the  sea,  who  had 
only  just  before  been  appointed  to  the  charge  of  this  vessel 
as  a  reward  for  his  scientific  labours.  He  put  off  with  a 
boat  and  crew  to  land  upon  one  of  the  islets  for  the  purpose 
of  taking  the  necessary  angles.  The  natives  espied  the 
approaching  boat,  and  drew  back  into  the  bush.  Then 
while  the  little  party  were  busy  with  their  transit  they 
crept  between  the  men,  who  had  scattered,  and  who  had 
also  thrown  down  their  arms  to  facilitate  movement  among 
the  undergrowth.  Every  man,  with  the  exception  of  one, 
was  treacherously  laid  low.  The  survivor  succeeded  in 
regaining  the  ship,  and  communicated  the  sad  tidings  of 
disaster.  Immediately  the  young  officer  now  in  command 
rallied  his  crew,  and  put  off  fully  armed.  It  was  a  risky 
dash,  as  he  was  supported  by  a  mere  handful  of  men,  while 
the  numbers  of  the  natives  were  unknown.  They  got  ashore 
and  warily  scoured  the  bush,  ready  to  let  fly  with  their 
rifles  directly  an  enemy  was  detected.  The  natives  hung 
about,  but  apparently  were  afraid  to  venture  too  closely  to 
the  grim,  determined  little  band,  with  the  result  that  the 
bodies  of  the  hydrographer  and  his  four  unfortunate 
comrades  Vvere  recovered. 

The  southern  seas  have  achieved  an  unsavoury  reputa- 
tion among  sea-surveyors,  as  the  natives  on  many  of  the 


THE    SURVEYOR    OF    THE    SEA  273 

islands  forming  that  vast  archipelago  look  with  no  friendly 
eye  on  the  charting  of  their  cruel  coasts  and  sinister  seas. 
Time  after  time  little  bands  have  been  surprised  and 
slaughtered,  the  murderers  being  secure  in  the  safety 
of  their  untrodden  forests.  It  is  difficult  for  the  white 
man  to  range  himself  against  native  cunning  in  these 
parts,  so  it  behoves  him  to  keep  a  sharp  look-out,  with 
one  hand  on  his  cocked  revolver  ready  for  any  emergency 
while  he  makes  his  angles.  The  British  Admiralty  prob- 
ably has  lost  more  promising  young  hydrographers  in 
these  seas  from  native  treachery  than  in  any  other  part  of 
the  world,  while  this  hostility  sometimes  has  assumed  the 
most  diabolical  forms  of  barbarity. 

The  sea-surveyor  must  be  prepared  to  face  peculiar  perils 
and  hardships.  They  are  inseparable  from  his  calling. 
Shipwreck  is  an  ever  present  danger,  and  it  requires  no 
little  seamanship  at  times  to  get  out  of  a  tight  corner, 
owing  to  wind,  tides  and  currents.  One  vessel,  while 
engaged  in  sounding  an  exposed  bay  off  the  Australian 
shore,  had  an  unfortunate  accident  to  her  machinery. 
Repairs  were  taken  in  hand  at  once,  but  before  they  were 
completed  a  heavy  gale  sprang  up.  The  commander  made 
himself  as  secure  as  he  could  by  throwing  out  several 
anchors.  The  vessel  lurched,  rolled  and  tossed  terribly, 
while  the  cables  groaned  ominously  under  the  strains 
imposed.  If  the  anchors  dragged  or  the  hawsers  broke 
disaster  was  certain,  as  nothing  could  save  the  ship  and 
crew  once  they  were  cast  upon  the  cruel  rocks  ahead. 
While  the  gale  was  raging  the  crew  redoubled  its  efforts 
to  repair  the  machinery,  and  at  last  this  being  completed 
satisfactorily  steam  was  raised,  and  the  vessel  headed  out 
to  sea.  The  whole  time  she  was  riding  in  that  open  bay 
the  crew  were  on  tenterhooks,  but  once  out  on  the  broad 
ocean  the  gale  aroused  few  misgivings  in  their  minds. 

While  the  Research  was  busy  sounding  off  the  Devon 
coast  in  1900,  the  vessel  and  crew  had  a  narrow  escape  from 
annihilation.  The  survey  ship  steamed  a  little  way,  and 
then  stopped  to  make  her  investigations.     The  captain  of 

T 


274    STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST  OF  THE   WORLD 

a  Greek  steamer,  who  was  passing,  observing  these 
tactics  repeated  at  short  intervals,  and  not  grasping  their 
import,  bore  down  to  examine  the  reason  more  closely. 
Unfortunately  for  the  surveyors  the  stranger  overshot  the 
mark,  and  collided  with  the  Research.  She  reeled  under 
the  impact,  but  recovered,  and  although  she  was  badly 
damaged  she  contrived  to  regain  Devonport  for  repairs. 

While  this  vessel  was  re-sounding  the.  entrance  to  the 
English  channel  in  1889-1890,  over  an  irregular  space  of 
2,990  square  miles,  the  little  band  aboard  had  many  uncom- 
fortable experiences.  At  night  she  anchored  in  from  300 
to  450  feet  of  water,  in  what  was  practically  the  open 
Atlantic,  150  miles  off  the  Scilly  Islands.  When  bad 
signs  of  weather  arose,  extra  anchors  were  thrown  out  to 
make  the  vessel  secure,  and  everything  was  made  snug 
and  tight,  to  face  the  fury  of  the  storm.  The  vessel  suffered 
little  strain  from  the  heavy  poundings  she  received, 
although  time  after  time  she  was  swept  from  stem  to  stern 
by  the  big  rollers.  The  plight  of  the  surveyors,  as  may 
be  imagined,  was  extremely  miserable.  For  day  after  day 
they  had  to  tolerate  the  inevitable  discomfort  with  the  best 
grace  they  could  command.  The  ship  could  not  run  for 
the  protection  of  a  harbour  with  the  approach  of  every 
gale,  as  serious  interference  with  the  work  would  have  been 
the  result. 

Navigators,  both  of  British  and  foreign  vessels,  con- 
tinually report  the  presence  of  uncharted  rocks  or  shoals 
on  the  shipping  routes  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  Directly 
they  appear  they  are  investigated.  The  majority,  after 
elaborate  research,  prove  to  be  non-existent,  while  other 
dangers  which  never  have  been  charted  are  often  discovered 
in  the  meantime.  In  one  instance  a  big  granite  tooth, 
lurking  about  eight  feet  below  the  water,  the  existence  of 
which  never  had  been  known,  was  found  within  a  stone's 
throw  of  a  crowded  shipping  lane,  and  passing  ships  had 
been  within  an  ace  of  disaster  every  time  they  rounded 
that  point.  When  the  menace  at  L'lst  was  charted  vessels 
wisely  took  a  wider  course. 


THE    SURVEYOR    OF   THE    SEA  275 

In  another  case  the  hydrographers  were  sorely  puzzled 
for  some  time  by  reports  of  an  uncharted  reef  on  the  ocean 
highway  through  the  southern  archipelago.  Captains 
were  confident  that  they  were  incurring  serious  danger  by 
following  the  Admiralty  charts,  since  everything  pointed 
to  the  fact  that  shallow  water  existed,  where  the  guide  said 
it  was  safe.  The  Alacrity  scoured  the  region,  but  with 
no  success.  Navigators  refused  to  be  satisfied.  Then  the 
Alert  appeared  upon  the  scene,  and  dragged  the  sea-bed 
repeatedly,  but  no  sign  of  a  shoal  was  revealed  by  the 
soundings.  The  surveyors  then  offered  an  explanation  of 
the  signs  which  embarrassed  navigators.  It  was  observed 
by  the  officers  that  whenever  the  surface  of  the  sea  at  this 
point  became  smooth,  seaweed  appeared  thickly  on  the 
surface,  forming  a  discoloration  of  the  water  closely 
similar  to  that  produced  by  a  coral  reef  about  eight  feet 
below.  Again,  as  currents  of  different  temperatures  met  at 
this  point,  shoals  of  fish  often  were  seen,  and  the  larger 
finny  members  splashing  and  throwing  the  water  high  into 
the  air  conveyed  the  impression  of  breakers  on  a  shoal. 

The  public  is  impressed  by  the  investigations  which  are 
carried  out  by  expeditions  to  the  North  and  South  Poles, 
and  marvel  at  the  temerity  of  those  essaying  to  penetrate 
those  inhospitable  regions.  Tramps,  liners  and  other 
vessels  do  not  venture  into  the  Polar  seas,  and  their  chart- 
ing counts  for  little,  so  far  as  general  navigation  is  con- 
cerned. On  the  other  hand,  the  labour,  zeal,  energy  and 
courage  displayed  in  the  face  of  extreme  and  varied  dangers 
among  the  frequented  seas  go  unsung,  although  it  is  pre- 
cisely this  toil  which  is  vital  to  the  mercantile  world,  and 
which  tends  to  render  ocean  travelling  as  safe  as  movement 
along  a  highroad  upon  a  fast  motor-car. 


CHAPTER    XX 

WIRELESS    TELEGRAPHY 

Probably  no  invention  of  modern  times  has  so  changed 
the  conditions  of  ocean  travelling  as  wireless  telegraphy. 
A  quarter  of  a  century  ago,  after  a  vessel  set  out  from 
port,  nothing  more  was  heard  of  her  until  she  reached 
her  destination,  unless  she  happened  to  be  spoken  by  a 
passing  ship.  To-day,  at  any  rate  so  far  as  the  x\tlantic  is 
concerned,  the  greyhound  is  never  out  of  touch  with  land 
on  either  side.  Every  passenger-vessel  carries  her  wireless 
installation,  with  which,  from  morning  to  night,  a  ceaseless 
conversation  is  maintained  upon  all  sides. 

In  the  closing  days  of  the  nineteenth  century,  Com- 
mendatore  Guglielmo  Marconi  was  striving  hard  to  talk 
through  the  air,  by  the  dots  and  dashes  of  the  JNlorse  code, 
over  the  thirty  or  so  miles  of  water  separating  South  Eore- 
land  from  Wimereux,  near  Boulogne.  The  invention  was 
regarded  then  in  the  light  of  a  scientific  toy,  and  although 
conversing  through  space  was  considered  marvellous,  no 
one  ever  thought  seriously  that  it  would  become  just  as 
easy  to  talk  across  3,500  as  20  miles. 

Yet  before  the  South  T^orcland — Wimereux  experiments 
were  completed  the  shipowner  recognised  the  far-reaching 
advantages  of  the  invention  from  his  own  point  of  view.  If 
the  range  of  conversation  extended  only  over  50  miles,  it 
would  enable  the  owner  to  keep  in  touch  with  his  navigators 
speeding  across  the  Atlantic.  The  "herring-pond,"  as  it 
is  colloquially  called,  was  becoming  dotted  more  thickly 
than  ever  with  vessels  passing  to  and  fro,  so  that  although 
the  owner  might  not  be  able  to  speak  direct  with  his  vessel 
1,500  miles  out  to  sea,  yel  he  would  be  able  to  transmit  a 
message  in  a  series  of  jumps,  or  by  relaying,  as  it  is  called, 
from  ship  to  ship,  to  its  destination. 

276 


WIRELESS    TELEGRAPHY  277 

Through  commendable  enterprise  Great  Britain  was  able 
to  secure  a  powerful  monopoly  in  wireless  conversation, 
so  far  as  the  mercantile  marine  is  concerned.  Stations 
were  established  around  the  coast  with  the  Marconi  appar- 
atus, and  accordingly  ships  which  desired  to  hold  converse 
with  these  islands  through  the  air  were  compelled  to  install 
this  system.  The  result  was  that  within  a  short  time  every 
Atlantic  liner  of  importance  carried  this  equipment.  The 
Germans  resented  this  tendency.  Teuton  inventors,  fol- 
lowing in  Marconi's  footsteps,  developed  a  system  which 
has  become  known  since  as  the  "Telefunken,"  whose 
advance,  by  the  w'ay,  has  been  due  to  the  personal  en- 
deavours and  influence  of  His  Majesty  the  German 
Emperor.  Efforts  were  made  by  the  leading  liners  to 
displace  the  Marconi  in  favour  of  the  Telefunken  system. 
But  it  was  of  no  avail.  The  owners  of  the  greyhounds 
sailing  from  Hamburg  and  Bremen  argued  that  they  were 
dependent  to  a  very  great  degree  upon  British  support, 
and  accordingly  adopted  the  Marconi  method,  as  thereby 
they  were  able  to  maintain  communication  with  British 
stations  and  ships,  which  would  be  impossible  with  the 
Telefunken  apparatus.  In  fact,  at  that  time  Marconi 
stations  refused  to  accept  messages  from  the  latter.  This 
situation  was  alleviated  by  the  astute  German  move  at  the 
Radio-telegraphic  Conference  of  1906,  when  it  was  agreed 
among  the  Powers  that  there  should  be  free  trade  in  wire- 
less telegraphy,  and  that  all  stations  should  accept  messages 
irrespective  of  the  system  adopted  by  the  sender  or  receiver. 
In  this  way  an  attempt  was  made  to  boost  the  German 
system,  but  even  that  proved  unavailing.  Severe  competi- 
tion sprang  up,  but  German  enterprise  was  no  match  for 
British  endeavour  in  this  field,  and  at  the  present  time 
more  than  eighty  per  cent,  of  the  wireless  apparatus 
employed  by  the  world's  mercantile  marine  is  on  the 
Marconi  system. 

Curiously  enough,  it  was  a  German  boat  which  inaugur- 
ated wireless  telegraphic  conversation  on  the  restless  ocean. 
The  first  liner  fitted  with  this  beneficial  apparatus  was  the 


278    STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST  OF   THE   WORLD 

famous  Kaiser  Wilhelm  der  Grosse  in  1900.  The  installa- 
tion was  effected  more  in  the  nature  of  an  additional 
"safety  device"  to  aid  the  commander  in  the  navigation 
of  his  vessel.  There  was  no  idea  at  the  time  that  pas- 
sengers would  express  desires  to  use  the  facilities.  It  was 
thought  that  the  traveller,  after  he  had  boarded  the  liner, 
would  settle  down  composedly  to  a  six  or  seven  days' 
immunity  from  the  cares,  worries  and  anxieties  of  events 
on  shore.  But  the  restless  spirit  of  the  age  dispelled  this 
illusion  very  quickly.  Directly  the  traveller  discovered 
that  there  were  means  available  on  board  whereby  he  could 
keep  in  touch  with  the  world  at  large,  he  embraced  ihem. 
It  is  rather  amusing  nowadays  to  learn  that  a  decade  ago 
a  private  wireless  message  was  transmitted  practically 
through  the  commander's  courtesy.  This  apparatus  was  for 
service  purposes  only;  a  factor  merely  in  the  handling  of 
the  ship  as  is  the  compass.  If  the  captain  did  not  feel 
disposed  to  permit  a  private  message  to  be  dispatched  he 
was  quite  within  his  province  to  decline.  Now  the  posi- 
tion of  affairs  is  reversed.  Although  the  wireless  is  still, 
at  the  undisputed  will  of  the  captain,  private  messages 
constitute  the  bulk  of  the  traffic,  and  represent  an  appre- 
ciable revenue. 

After  the  Kaiser  ]Vilhehn  der  Grosse  had  demonstj-ated, 
in  a  very  convincing  manner,  the  serviceability  of  the 
invention  on  board  in  connection  with  oceanic  navigation, 
other  vessels  in  the  running  for  trans-Atlantic  patronage 
were  compelled  to  follow  suit.  The  German  flyer  was 
securing  a  distinct  advantage.  Passengers  were  attracted 
to  her  cabins  by  the  fact  that  she  carried  a  means  of  com- 
municating through  the  air  while  at  sea,  and  that  therein 
she  possessed  a  powerful  factor  wherewith  to  summon 
assistance  if  needed.  Accordingly,  in  the  year  1901  the 
Cunard,  the  Inman  or  American  Lines,  and  the  Compagnie 
Generale  Transatlantique  acquired  installations.  Other 
lines  did  not  hesitate  to  follow  the  example,  and  to-day  a 
liner  would  no  more  dream  of  proceeding  to  sea  without 
her  wireless  apparatus  than  she  would  entertain  the  idea 
of  leaving  her  rudder  behind. 


WIRELESS   TELEGRAPHY  279 

As  the  mercantile  development  proceeded  by  leaps  and 
bounds,  it  became  imperative  to  resolve  the  question  into 
a  harmonious  whole.  Ships  were  not  to  be  permitted  to 
wield  the  new  power  as  caprice  dictated.  Accordingly, 
a  scheme  was  prepared  to  obtain  uniformity  and  cohesion 
in  working,  and  to  this  the  various  shipping  companies 
subscribed  their  support.  This  agreement  remains  in 
force  to  this  day.  Service  messages  naturally  were  given 
priority,  but  passengers  were  permitted  to  use  the  facilities 
when  they  felt  so  disposed.  At  the  same  time  a  code  was 
prepared  for  the  benefit  of  the  respective  navigators,  and 
certain  symbols  were  accepted  to  designate  distinctive  calls. 
Among  these  were  incorporated  the  famous  urgency  call 
for  use  in  distress,  and  the  general  call  for  all  stations 
within  the  range  of  the  calling  ship.  The  latter  was  the 
"C  Q."  Every  station  that  received  this  symbol  at  once 
cleared  the  lines,  or  air,  and  disregarded  all  other  messages. 
It  was  the  signal  to  stand  by  in  expectation  of  receiving 
some  message  of  pressing  importance,  in  much  the  same 
way  as  the  telegraphic  operator  on  land  receives  a  clearing 
call  over  his  wires. 

The  "C  Q  "  thus  became  an  urgency  signal.  It  brought 
the  operators  at  all  the  receiving  stations  within  radius 
to  attention,  and  they  naturally  strained  every  nerve  to 
receive  the  following  message.  Those  vessels  which  carry 
only  one  operator  throw  out  the  "CQ"  call,  when  not  in 
continuous  communication,  every  two  hours.  By  this 
means  the  vessel  is  able  to  ascertain  whether  or  no  it  is 
within  the  range  of  other  vessels  which  could  proceed  to  its 
assistance  if  the  occasion  arose. 

While  the  "CQ"  was  effective  it  did  not  meet  every 
contingency.  It  was  merely  a  stand-by  signal,  and  the 
receiving  ship  continued  on  its  course  w-ithout  delay.  It 
was  felt  that  a  special  emergency  or  distress  call  should 
be  formulated,  and  accordingly  the  letter  "D"  was  added 
to  the  stand-by  signal.  The  distress  signal  thus  became 
"CQD,"  which  has  been  resolved  by  the  general  public 
to  signifv  "Come  Quickly  Danger,"  The  third  letter  wrs 
added  because,   if  the  receiving  station  only  received  the 


28o    STEAMSHIP  CONQUEST  OF  THE   WORLD 

"C"  and  the  "Q  "  the  operator  naturally  would  be  on  the 
alert,  and  when  the  call  was  repeated  would  receive  the 
full  signal. 

It  was  agreed  that  this  emergency  call  should  not  be 
given  except  by  order  of  the  captain  of  the  ship  in  distress, 
or  by  other  vessels  sending  the  message  forward.  All 
stations  within  range  are  required  to  recognise  its  signifi- 
cance, and  to  disregard  everything  else  in  their  eflforts  to 
establish  communication  promptly  with  the  point  from 
which  the  call  is  sent.  The  distress  signal  stands  first  and 
foremost.  Even  if  an  operator  is  in  the  midst  of  receiving 
or  sending  a  communication  of  far-reaching  importance 
between  Governments,  it  has  to  be  dropped  in  the  interests 
of  humanity.  The  "C  Q  D  "  call  towers  above  everything 
else,  since  it  is  not  given  unless  a  vessel  is  in  dire  straits, 
when  every  minute  is  of  importance. 

At  the  1906  International  Radio-telegraphic  Conference 
the  distress  signal  was  altered  to"S  O  S,"  which  colloquial- 
ism has  resolved  into  "Save  Our  Souls."  These  letters 
were  selected  because  they  form  a  simpler  signal  to 
transmit  than  the  one  formerly  in  vogue,  and  it  is  not 
liable  to  confusion.     The   Morse  translation  of  SOS   is 

three  dots,  three  dashes,  three  dots,  thus  ... —  .  •  •; 

whereas  that  of  the  "CQD"  is  dash-dot-dash-dot,  dash- 
dash-dot-dash,   dash-dot-dot,   or    — . — ■. . —    — .. 

Even  if  the  operator  on  a  sinking  ship  became  flurried  and 
sent  a  heterogeneous  signal  of  dots  and  dashes,  the  receiv- 
ing stations,  from  the  recurrence  of  the  respective  symbols 
and  their  apparent  lack  of  meaning,  would  surmise  that 
something  serious  was  amiss,  and  intuitively  would  accept 
it  as  the  "SOS"  call. 

When  a  ship  is  in  danger  this  signal  is  pumped  out 
continuously  until  the  operator  receives  an  answer.  Then 
he  immediately  gives  the  position  of  the  distressed  vessel, 
and  inquires  those  of  the  responding  boats.  In  a  few 
seconds  the  captain  is  able  to  deduce  the  distance  separat- 
ing him  from  his  nearest  help,  and,  knov.'ing  the  average 
speed  of  the  latter  bv  consultation  of  his  reference-book, 
can  estimate  how  much  time  must  elapse  before  his  rescuer 


WIRELESS   TELEGRAPHY 


2d  I 


H  E  _,    o      a 

*  S  a  jdBK  f s  Q    kg 


3  »ii  «ff3  aSis  a 

B  ^r3S  ill?  '■ 


282     STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

can  come  alongside.  If  the  interval  is  longer  than  the 
sinking  ship  can  last,  he  can  direct  the  laden  life-boats  so 
that  the  vessel  hastening  to  assistance  may  be  intercepted, 
and  be  able  to  pick  up  the  survivors. 

Wireless  messages  are  divided  into  six  broad  classes. 
First  and  foremost,  as  already  mentioned,  comes  the 
distress  signal.  In  the  second  group  are  the  messages 
of  the  British  Admiralty  and  other  Government  depart- 
ments, which,  although  they  may  not  concern  the  vessel 
immediately  receiving  them,  must  be  passed  on  towards 
their  destinations.  Third  on  the  list  come  the  communica- 
tions of  foreign  Governments,  which  are  treated  in  a  like 
manner,  followed  by  messages  relating  to  navigation.  The 
fifth  class  comprises  messages  on  the  radio-telegraphic 
service,  while  last  of  all  is  ordinary  correspondence 
embracing  the  messages  of  passengers,  etc. 

The  perfection  of  this  invention  has  removed  fifty  per 
cent,  of  the  perils  besetting  navigation,  while  the  travelling 
public  realise  that  they  have  an  incalculably  greater 
measure  of  security.  For  the  purposes  of  navigation 
elaborate  charts  have  been  prepared  (p.  281).  At  first 
sight  the  chart  relating  to  the  Atlantic  resembles  a  network 
of  lines  which  have  gone  awry,  but  each  line  represents  the 
passage  of  a  vessel  across  the  Atlantic,  as  well  as  the 
approximate  points  and  times  when  its  wireless  installation 
will  come  within  range  of  those  of  other  vessels  proceeding 
either  in  the  same  or  in  the  opposite  direction. 

Vessels  are  continually  talking  to  one  another  during 
the  voyage,  transmitting  information  as  to  weather  con- 
ditions, natural  phenomena,  obstructions,  and  so  on.  A 
liner  may  hold  converse  with  half-a-dozen  or  more  ships 
simultaneously  if  her  instruments  are  sufficiently  powerful. 
For  instance,  the  wireless  of  the  Olympic  is  able  to  talk 
over  350  miles  at  least,  and  in  practice  its  range  is  consider- 
ably greater.  To  facilitate  conversation  between  respective 
captains  relative  to  navigation,  a  universal  code  has  been 
drawn  up,  thereby  abbreviating  the  message  as  well  as 
expediting  its  transmission. 

Captains   experience    no    more    difficulty    in    conversing 


THK    MARCONI    WIRKLKSS    OPERATOR    ON    C.rARO 

The  wireless  room  is  placed  on  the  liighest  deck  of  the  liner.     Two  operators  take  turn 

alternately  throughout  the  twenty-lour  hours  to  sit,  receivers  clamped  to  ears,  to 

catch  the  faintest  sound  of  dot  and  dash  which  enters  the  ship  from  the  air. 


--p?v- 


/I 


,^4/\  wit     \J1%:..  J    ■  .,,  P 


*■  i' 


:^., 


I  ill-,     AlAKllVM     AI-.Ki.\l.    iM-^     Till-;    ('/);,;. 

A  heavy  network  of  wires  is  slung  between  the  two  masts,  witli  connection  just  forward  of 
the  second  funnel  to  the  operator's  catiin  on  the  boat  deck. 


\viKi;i.i;ss  sirr  toR  vmu.o  ho.vis 

In  order  to  encourage  the  use  of  this  means  of  comnuniication  among  small  steamers  and  tramps, 
a  low-powered  inexpensive  plant  lias  been  perfected  by  tiie  Marconi  C^>mpany. 


WIRELESS   TELEGRAPHY  283 

through  space  for  300  miles  than  when  walking  side  by 
side  along  a  street.  The  liner  is  driving  her  way  full- 
speed,  possibly  through  dirty  weather,  and  every  now  and 
again,  as  she  rolls  to  meet  a  wave,  she  ships  a  comber.  It 
is  hard-going,  for  a  north-west  gale  pounds  heavily.  In 
the  wireless  room  is  the  operator  with  ears  and  eyes  alert 
to  catch  the  faintest  tick  of  a  dot  or  a  dash.  Presently  he 
catches  an  inquiring  call,  and  a  glance  at  his  wireless 
chart  conveys  the  intimation  that  it  is  one  of  three  or  four 
ships,  as  they  should  be  coming  within  range  of  his  instru- 
ment.    He  throws  out  an  inquiring  call — 

"Hello!  Is  that  Baltic?  This  is  Campania,  latitude 
38°  45',  longitude  45°.     What's  your  position?" 

"Hello,  Campania!  This  is  Baltic,  latitude  37°  20'  15", 
longitude  47°.  Passed  derelict,  sailing-ship,  deck  awash, 
name  unknown,  latitude  42°  16',  longitude  61°  o',  drifting 
east  by  north-east.     Look  out !  " 

"Thanks!  What's  the  weather?  We  are  driving 
against  heavy  head  seas  in  a  fifty-knot  gale.     Raining." 

"Right ;  will  prepare  for  it.  Dense  fog  here,  but  smooth 
sea.  Reduced  to  fifteen  knots.  Italian  steamer  reports 
ice  passed  last  night,  latitude  37"  18'  45",  longitude 
49°  26'  50".  Yesterday  morning  spoke  British  steamer 
Persia,  bound  Glasgow  to  Boston,  with  starboard  engine 
broken  down.  Asks  to  be  reported  to  other  steamers  as 
proceeding  at  reduced  speed.     Good-bye." 

At  times  a  ship  proceeding  westwards  will  have  informa- 
tion which  she  desires  to  be  sent  on  to  New  York,  whither 
she  is  proceeding,  and  in  this  instance  the  message  will 
be  sent  in  a  hop,  skip  and  a  jump  from  mid-ocean  through 
all  the  vessels  lying  between  the  sender's  position  and  the 
American  port,  whether  proceeding  east  or  west.  The 
operator  of  the  Minnehaha,  say,  will  send  out  the  C  Q  call 
in  the  hope  of  picking  up  the  Deutschland,  which  is 
eastward  bound. 

"Is  that  Deutschland?  This  is  Minnehaha,  latitude 
35°  16'  47",  longitude  37°  20'  51"." 

"Hello,  Minnehaha!  This  Deutschland,  latitude 
36°  12'  27",  longitude  39°  50'  42"." 


284    STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

"  Please  report  New  York  quarantine,  case  infectious 
disease,  developed  in  John  Smith,  Main  Street,  Winnipeg, 
Canada.  Diagnosed  small-pox.  Please  advise  relatives. 
Patient  isolated  in  hospital.  No  danger.  Will  report 
again  later." 

The  communication  of  such  a  message  notifies  the 
American  quarantine  authorities  of  the  approaching  arrival 
of  a  passenger  who  has  contracted  infection,  and  who  may 
have  to  be  detained,  pending  removal  by  his  friends. 
Accordingly,  arrangements  can  be  made  in  anticipation, 
probably  for  his  transference  to  a  sanatorium  upon 
reaching  New  York. 

Sometimes  while  a  vessel  is  on  the  high  seas,  making  for 
a  certain  scheduled  port,  her  owners  desire  her  diversion 
to  another  port.  In  this  instance  the  instructions  will  be 
dispatched  through  the  air  from  both  sides  of  the  ocean, 
being  passed  on  from  vessel  to  vessel  until  they  reach  the 
ship  concerned.  The  Mauretania  may  be  driving  home- 
wards at  full  speed  for  Fishguard,  and  be  about  1,200 
miles  off  the  Irish  coast.  A  change  of  port  is  decided  by 
the  management  at  Liverpool.  Consultation  of  the  chart 
will  show  the  approximate  position  of  the  liner,  say  at  mid- 
night, and  those  vessels  which  are  within  talking  distance 
of  her  at  that  time.  The  message  will  be  bandied  across 
the  ocean  until  it  falls  within  the  hands  of  the  operator 
within  range  of  the  greyhound.     Out  goes  the  CQ  call. 

" Lusitania  wanted.    St.  Paul  calling." 

"Hello,  St.  Paul!  What's  the  matter?  Lusitania 
talking." 

"Cunard  Company,  Liverpool,  instruct  Lusitania  to  call 
at  Queenstown,  land  mails,  omit  Fishguard,  and  proceed 
straight  to  Liverpool." 

"Right !  Will  report  acceptance  of  instructions.  Good- 
night." 

This  possibility  of  diverting  a  vessel  ^\hile  on  the  high 
seas  has  demonstrated  the  value  of  wireless  in  a  very 
marked  manner.  During  the  London  dock-strike  several 
vessels,   carrying  perishable  cargoes  and  n\aking  for  the 


WIRELESS   TELEGRAPHY  285 

Thames,  were  caught  well  out  to  sea,  and  instructed  to 
proceed  to  Southampton,  Bristol,  Liverpool,  or  some  other 
port  where  labour  was  at  peace,  so  as  to  clear  her  cargo 
expeditiously,  thereby  not  only  releasing  the  vessel  for 
further  use,  but  also  relieving  the  underwriters  of  a  liability 
in  regard  to  the  perishable  products  aboard,  which  were 
likely  to  become  unfit  for  consumption  if  unloading  were 
delayed. 

Hitherto  the  wireless  installation  has  been  confined 
rather  to  the  larger  vessels,  particularly  to  the  liners,  but 
at  the  moment  several  freighters  are  being  equipped  with 
the  facilities.  The  Marconi  Company  has  devised  a  special 
inexpensive  installation  for  such  vessels,  which,  although 
of  low  power  and  range  in  comparison  with  those  fitted  to 
the  flyers,  is  adequate  for  the  purpose. 

The  wisdom  of  the  application  was  demonstrated  very 
conclusively  in  the  South  Atlantic  during  the  early  part 
of  1912.  A  tramp  had  been  engaged  in  a  mighty  tussle 
with  the  elements.  She  had  been  knocked  and  tossed 
about  by  the  winds  and  the  waves  for  several  days,  and 
although  she  put  up  a  stern  fight,  and  emerged  from  the 
storm  little  the  worse  for  her  hard  experience,  the  captain 
had  lost  his  bearings.  The  sky,  with  aggravating  persist- 
ence, retained  its  overcast  sullenness,  so  that  the  navigator 
was  denied  a  glimpse  of  the  sun.  He  kept  his  wireless 
operator  steadily  at  work  sending  out  the  "CQ"  call,  in 
the  hope  that  the  dots  and  dashes  might  strike  the  ear  of 
an  operator  on  a  passing  liner  within  about  50  miles.  For 
about  a  couple  of  days  he  called  in  vain,  as  the  southern 
seas  are  not  so  thickly  dotted  with  wireless-equipped  vessels 
as  the  North  Atlantic.  At  last  came  an  interrogating 
reply.  The  captain  of  the  tramp  related  his  experiences, 
that  he  had  lost  his  bearings,  and  desired  to  know  approxi- 
mately where  he  was  from  the  position  of  the  ship  who 
had  responded.  The  liner  replied,  and  thereby  the  master 
was  able  to  decide  his  position  within  a  matter  of  50  miles 
or  so.  The  next  day  the  liner  happened  to  pass  him  within 
10  miles,   and  then  the  tramp  was  able  to  determine  his 


286    STEAMSHIP  CONQUEST  OF  THE   WORLD 

bearings  accurately.  In  this  instance,  but  for  his  wireless, 
he  might  have  blundered  into  a  formidable  unseen  danger; 
and  no  stick  of  the  ship  have  been  seen  again. 

But  the  usefulness  of  wireless  communication  has  been 
demonstrated  from  the  passengers'  point  of  view  in  its 
most  compelling  manner  in  connection  with  disaster.  The 
first  powerful  illustration  came  when  the  Florida  rammed 
the  Republique.  The  captain  of  the  latter,  realising  that 
his  ship  had  received  a  mortal  blow,  ordered  the  "C  Q  D  " 
call  to  be  circulated.  In  the  course  of  a  few  moments  half- 
a-dozen  or  more  vessels  had  responded  and  were  asking 
for  the  Republiqiie's  position.  It  was  given,  and  in  less 
than  five  minutes  every  vessel  within  range  had  turned  her 
nose  to  the  indicated  point,  had  piled  on  steam,  and  was 
rushing  forward  at  full  speed.  The  Baltic  was  the  first  to 
arrive,  and  although  the  unfortunate  passengers  had  mean- 
while been  taken  on  board  the  Florida,  the  situation  of  the 
latter  appeared  to  be  so  desperate  that  they  were  transferred 
to  the  White  Star  liner  which  had  replied  to  the  distress 
signal  so  promptly.  Similar  results  attended  the  founder- 
ing of  the  Titanic,  when  the  Carpathia,  although  a  con- 
siderable distance  away,  raced  at  tip-top  speed  towards 
the  scene  of  the  disaster,  which  she  gained  within  a  few 
hours.  Also,  when  the  Cap  Frio  got  entangled  among  some 
pitiless  rocks,  the  frantic  calls  from  her  Telefunken  appar- 
atus enabled  assistance  to  be  brought  alongside  to  take  off 
her  imperilled  passengers.  How  many  ships  and  pas- 
sengers owe  their  safety  to  Marconi  it  is  impossible  to  say, 
but  \\  ire  less  to-day  is  considered  to  be  second  in  importance 
on  board  ship  only  to  the  compass. 

The  operating-room  upon  an  Atlantic  liner  is  one  of  the 
.busiest  corners  of  the  vessel.  Messages  in  two  ceaseless 
streams  pass  to  and  from  the  hammock  of  v.ires  slung 
between  the  two  masts,  whence  the  electric  waves,  corre- 
sponding to  dots  and  dashes,  are  dispersed  into,  and  col- 
lected from,  the  atmosphere.  Many  of  the  incoming 
messages  have  to  be  re-dispatched  upon  their  invisible  way. 
They  have  entered  in  a  weakened  condition  from  their  long 
radiation    through    the   atmosphere,    and   the   operator   re- 


WIRELESS   TELEGRAPHY  287 

invigorates  the  communication  by  sending  it  on  to  the  next 
ship  ahead  or  astern  with  which  he  is  in  touch.  Others 
have  to  be  sorted  out  for  delivery  to  the  commander  and 
other  officials  on  board,  while  the  remainder  are  translated 
for  the  passengers.  The  telegraph  messenger  has  not  ap- 
peared on  board  the  modern  greyhound  yet.  Probably 
he  is  one  of  those  few  conveniences  which  still  remain 
to  be  introduced  when  the  pressure  of  work  demands  such 
an  innovation.  Among  the  official  messages,  one  import- 
ant group  is  that  referring  to  meteorological  conditions. 
As  the  captain  of  a  vessel  receives  intimation  of  the  char- 
acter of  the  weather  ahead  of  him,  and  is  able  to  make  his 
preparations  to  meet  it,  so  on  shore  the  weather  bureaux 
depend  upon  information  gathered  from  mid-Atlantic  and 
dispatched  by  wireless,  to  help  them  to  forecast  conditions 
more  reliably  than  was  possible  a  decade  ago.  In  this 
manner  we  receive  notification  of  approaching  depressions, 
cyclones,  spells  of  fine  weather,  and  other  variations,  two 
or  three  days  before  they  touch  the  shore  line. 

The  travelling  business  man  when  he  steps  aboard  a 
liner  no  longer  settles  himself  down  to  a  well-earned  rest 
and  welcome  break  from  the  harassing  duties  of  commerce. 
By  the  aid  of  the  wireless  he  is  kept  as  closely  in  touch 
with  his  oftice  as  if  he  were  at  the  end  of  a  telephone  wire. 
In  the  early  days  of  the  innovation  he  somewhat  resented 
the  intrusion  of  this  handmaid  of  science,  so  far  as  his 
own  particular  welfare  was  concerned.  He  had  been  apt 
to  relate  that  the  only  way  in  which  he  could  escape  from 
the  turmoil  and  tribulations  of  the  ofiice  was  to  take  a 
voyage.  Now  this  sanctuary  is  denied  him.  The  volume 
of  commercial  messages  from  and  to  passengers  which 
pass  through  the  little  cabin  harbouring  the  Morse  sender 
and  sounder  would  astonish  the  average  individual,  but 
when  it  is  remembered  that  over  2,500  souls,  perhaps,  are 
being  housed  on  the  ten  floors  of  the  greyhound,  and  that 
there  is  more  activity  within  this  shell  of  steel  than  in  a 
sky-scraper  half  as  high  as  the  liner  is  long,  the  pressure 
on  the  operator  may  be  appreciated.  On  the  large  vessels 
two  telegraphists  are  retained,  working  in  regular  shifts,  as 


288    STEAMSHIP  CONQUEST  OF  THE   WORLD 

the  stress  of  business  is  heavier  during  the  night  than 
throughout  the  day. 

Another  historical  development  was  recorded  on  Novem- 
ber 15,  1899.  The  liner  St.  Paul  was  nearing  the  south 
of  England  coast  at  20  knots  per  hour.  Among  the  375 
passengers  aboard  were  Mr.  Marconi  and  two  of  his 
engineers.  They  were  returning  home  after  having  re- 
ported the  American  Cup  Race  for  the  Associated  Press  of 
the  United  States.  The  apparatus  employed  for  this  pur- 
pose was  on  board  the  liner,  and  the  inventor  had  cabled 
from  New  York,  just  before  sailing,  that  he  would  en- 
deavour to  get  into  touch  with  the  Needles  Marconi  station 
as  the  liner  swung  up  the  Channel. 

As  the  coast  was  approached  Mr.  Marconi  established 
communication  Vvith  the  land,  and  in  a  short  time  terse 
items  of  news  trickled  aboard.  Then  a  brilliant  idea  was 
conceived.  Down  in  the  depths  of  the  ship  was  a  small 
office  in  which  the  menu  cards  and  other  requirements  on 
board  ship  were  printed.  Why  not  collect  the  items  of 
news  as  they  came  to  Mr.  Marconi's  hands,  set  them  up, 
and  issue  a  diminutive  news-sheet?  It  was  a  novelty 
which  appealed  to  all,  and  when  the  inventor  and  Captain 
Jamison  were  approached,  they  gave  their  consent  readily, 
especially  as  the  paper  was  to  be  produced  in  the  interests 
of  charily. 

A  full-fledged  editorial  staff  was  improvised  hurriedly, 
the  little  sheet  was  born,  and  received  the  title  of  The 
Transatlantic  Times.  It  was  made  up  of  a  few  editorial 
remarks  and  local  information,  enhanced  with  three  stop- 
press  foreign  messages  which  came  to  hand  50  miles  off  the 
Needles.  The  type  was  set  up  with  feverish  haste,  and 
before  many  minutes  had  elapsed  85  copies  of  the  first 
newspaper  published  at  sea  were  reeled  off.  A  larger  cir- 
culation was  impossible  bec^ause  the  printing  department 
ran  out  of  paper  ! 

The  demand  for  the  novel  news-sheet  was  instantaneous. 
Within  an  hour  the  whole  edition  was  sold  out  at  a  dollar 
a  copy,  and  the  Seamen's  Fund  was  swelled  by  ^ij,  or 


A    BADLY    "  BRttKHN    NOSE 
Tlie  shattered  lunv  and  stem  of  the  \'<xi(xkall.      Tlie  damage  was  cut  away,  and  a  new  part 
built  hy  Smith's  Dock  Company  at  Mitldle^.hroiigli. 


riioto  hv  II'.  Part-y,  South  Sk.clds\ 

THE    .1//.!//   AFTER    BKINCl    ACIROI'ND 

'Y\\c  bow  suffered  as  severely  as  the  stern.      A  large  number  of  plates  had  to  be  removed 
alnnj;  the  whole  bottom  of  the  ship,  together  with  many  of  the  frames. 


i>/' Sha-M,  //iiii/diaii/  in^^.'iiuii  K it  hayiison,  JJ,i. 

AN    INWHIXOMK    VISITOR 

The  side  of  tlie  H  tintini^(i(Ui  after  collision  with  the  I-'.d-Ma}-d  l-'.Ciles.      The  impact  was  so  great 
tli.il  .1  part  nf  the  ramming  vessel's  bow  was  wrenclied  off  and  left  in  the  wound. 


WIRELESS   TELEGRAPHY  289 

some  $85.  From  this  humble  beginning  has  grown 
"oceanic  newspaperdom,"  which  to-day  has  attained  large 
proportions.  No  important  greyhound  of  to-day  omits  to 
produce  its  newspaper,  and  its  publication  upon  board  ship 
precipitates  a  wave  of  intense  excitement. 

In  many  instances  the  bulk  of  the  paper  is  prepared  on 
shore  in  the  form  of  an  illustrated  magazine-newspaper. 
The  sheet  printed  on  board  ship,  and  containing  all  the 
news  up  to  the  moment  of  going  to  press,  is  inserted  within 
this  covering.  In  some  cases  the  magazine  section  is 
omitted,  the  liner  being  content  to  publish  merely  the  tiny 
newspaper.  As  may  be  imagined,  the  items  of  information 
are  severely  condensed,  but  they  are  varied,  being  garnered 
from  all  parts  of  the  world.  Probably  no  branch  of 
industry  has  been  created — certainly  not  a  newspaper — 
under  such  peculiar  and  romantic  circumstances  as  the 
wireless  organ. 

The  passengers  on  those  vessels  which  cannot  boast  a 
"local"  newspaper  are  not  denied  tidings  of  the  world's 
progress  during  their  sojourn  upon  the  water.  Twice  a 
week  the  Marconi  organisation  dispatches  broadcast  over 
the  seas  an  elaborate  summary  of  the  world's  happenings 
between  the  two  poles,  the  items  being  pinned  to  the  ship's 
"bulletin  board  "  for  the  benefit  of  all  and  sundry.  Conse- 
quently to-day,  the  time-worn  phrase,  "Oh,  I  was  on  the 
Atlantic  at  the  time,"  no  longer  prevails  as  a  feasible 
excuse  for  being  ignorant  of  any  particularly  striking 
event  in  the  world's  happenings.  If  it  is  of  paramount 
importance  it  is  certainly  Marconigraphed. 

Wireless  telegraphy  is  one  of  the  many  startling  wonders 
which  have  entered  into  the  field  of  marine  navigation,  and 
have  succeeded  in  revolutionising  the  whole  problem  of 
sea-travel.  While  the  day  has  not  yet  dawned  when  every 
ship,  irrespective  of  its  character,  size  and  traffic,  whether 
passenger  or  freighter,  will  be  compelled  by  legislative 
action  to  be  equipped  with  wireless  telegraphy,  develop- 
ments are  hastening  rapidly  towards  this  end. 


CHAPTER    XXI 

GRAVEYARDS   OF  THE   OCEAN 

Every  highway  of  locomotion  is  beset  with  what  might 
be  termed  its  "danger-spots."  The  pedestrian  making  his 
way  along  the  city  street  incurs  risks  when  crossing  the 
roadway  at  points  where  several  arteries  converge;  the 
motorist  or  cyclist  has  to  maintain  a  vigilant  look-out  for 
perilous  corners ;  the  driver  of  the  railway  express  eases 
the  pace  of  his  train  as  he  glides  round  a  sharp  curve;  and 
so  on.  The  steamship  has  still  greater  perils  to  encounter 
since  the  difficulties  and  danger-spots  incidental  to  various 
forms  of  movement  on  dry  land  are  combined.  The 
navigator  has  to  thread  crowded  waters;  he  has  to  round 
dangerous  corners  and  curves ;  and  must  give  a  wide  berth 
to  hull-smashing  obstacles  in  the  form  of  sand-bars  and 
rocks,  both  visible  and  invisible.  The  average  person  is 
prone  to  think  that  steering  a  vessel  is  the  easiest  and 
simplest  task,  owing  to  the  amount  of  sea-room  in  which 
the  craft  may  be  manoeuvred ;  but  space  is  not  everything. 

Congestion  and  convergence  of  streams  of  traffic  are 
emphasised  most  forcibly  at  the  entrances  to  busy  rivers, 
such  as  the  Thames,  the  Scheldt,  Maas,  Elbe  and  Hudson, 
though  probably  it  is  most  pronounced  in  connection  with 
the  first-named  estuary,  especially  during  the  seasons  of  the 
year  when  fogs  are  prevalent.  London  is  the  busiest  port 
in  the  world,  and  when  the  waterway  is  gripped  by  this 
enemy  and  is  rendered  impassable  there  is  complete  dis- 
organisation. Laden  vessels  from  all  parts  of  the  world 
arrive  continuously,  to  find  that  they  cannot  enter  the 
river.  They  are  forced  to  anchor  in  long  queues  at  the 
Nore,  anxiously  anticipating  the  moment  when  the  fog  will 
lift  to  enable  them  to  resume  their  journey.     When   the 

290 


GRAVEYARDS    OF   THE    OCEAN  291 

blanket  of  smoke  and  mist  rises  there  is  remarkable  activity. 
The  vessels,  one  and  all,  weigh  anchor  and  endeavour  to 
enter  the  narrow  channel  simultaneously.  As  a  result  col- 
lisions are  frequent,  and  it  is  probable  that  more  wrecks 
occur  in  the  narrow,  funnel-shaped  mouth  of  the  Thames 
than  in  any  other  estuary  in  the  world.  It  may  also  be 
remarked  in  passing,  that  wrecks  are  cleared  out  of  the  way 
in  less  time  in  this  waterway  than  in  any  other  river. 

The  greatest  dangers  lie  around  the  coast,  and  many 
stretches  of  shore-line  have  achieved  such  evil  notoriety, 
as  being  the  scene  of  many  fearful  marine  disasters,  that 
they  are  avoided  very  severely  by  the  cautious  mariner. 
The  south-western  extremity  of  England  is  dreaded  par- 
ticularly, since  the  granite  cliffs  drop  abruptly  into  the 
water,  to  reappear  here  and  there  far  out  from  the  beach, 
or  to  lurk  just  beneath  the  water,  ready  to  rip  out  the 
plates  of  the  vessel  which  ventures  to  hug  the  coast  too 
tightly.  Probably  more  vessels  have  gone  to  their  last 
account  off  the  shores  of  Cornwall  than  upon  any  other 
stretch  of  shore  around  the  British  Islands.  The  danger- 
zone  may  be  said  to  lie  between  the  Eddystone  Lighthouse 
and  the  Lizard  and  thence  to  the  Longships,  in  the  case 
of  coasting  vessels,  while  those  setting  out  for  the  broad 
Atlantic  to  depart  westwards  or  southwards  have  to  make 
a  broad  sweep  to  clear  the  scattered  granitic  fangs  lying 
around  the  Scillies. 

The  worst  length  in  this  section  is  the  tumbled  clump 
lying  five  and  a  half  miles  south  of  Falmouth  Harbour, 
known  far  and  wide  as  the  Manacles.  At  this  point  the 
coast-line  is  very  bold  and  forbidding,  the  ridge  jutting 
about  a  mile  and  a  half  out  to  sea,  and  spreading  over  a 
wide  area  like  a  big  fan,  the  whole  being  covered  at  high 
tide,  and  exposed  only  partially  at  low  water.  Many  a 
vessel  has  lost  her  way  through  fog  while  passing  this 
spot,  or  because  she  has  strayed  from  her  proper  course, 
to  come  to  grief  against  these  fearful  teeth,  as  the  church- 
yard of  St.  Keverne,  overlooking  this  channel  graveyard, 
testifies,  since  it  is  crowded  with  victims  claimed  by  the 

U2 


292     STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST  OF  THE   WORLD 

relentless  sea.  In  fact,  the  catastrophes  have  been  so 
numerous  and  terrible  that  the  Cornish  fishermen  have 
come  to  regard  the  Manacles  with  superstitious  fear,  and 
in  calm  weather  the  boldest  spirits  will  row  the  curious 
traveller  out,  and,  pointing  into  the  limpid  water,  will 
indicate  what  was  formerly  a  stately  vessel  lying  battered, 
broken  and  rusting  on  the  rugged  sea-bed. 

Some  captains  declare  that  the  rocks  are  magnetic  and 
so  upset  their  compasses,  and  that  they  are  lured  unavoid- 
ably to  their  doom.  No  exact  evidence  of  this  fact,  how- 
ever, has  been  forthcoming  scientifically,  and  the  greater 
number  of  the  accidents  placed  to  the  account  of  the 
Manacles  have  been  attributed  to  errors  of  judgment. 
While  small  boats  innumerable  have  completed  their  sea 
careers  abruptly  on  these  cruel  rocks,  the  latter  have 
achieved  most  of  their  ill-fame  from  the  victims  they  have 
claimed  from  among  the  larger  vessels.  On  May  Day 
1855  the  emigrant  ship  John  crashed  into  them,  and  200 
souls  were  drowned.  On  October  14,  1898,  the  Atlantic 
liner  Mohegan,  while  proceeding  down  Channel,  en  route 
for  New  York,  fouled  the  tail  of  the  ridge,  swung  round, 
slipped  off  the  ledge  with  her  bottom  torn  out,  and  sank 
in  deep  water  alongside,  dragging  103  of  her  total  comple- 
ment of  150  people  on  board  to  a  watery  grave  in  twenty 
minutes.  Less  than  six  months  later  another  stately 
Atlantic  liner,  the  unlucky  Paris,  similarly  bound  for  New 
York  with  430  passengers  and  crew,  struck  a  submerged 
hump,  and  was  badly  holed.  In  this  case  Fate  was  kinder, 
since  the  vessel  was  wedged  firmly  upon  the  sharp 
pinnacles,  and  although  the  escape  was  very  narrow,  there 
was  no  loss  of  life. 

The  reason  why  the  Mohegan  fouled  the  reef  was  inex- 
plicable, as  the  weather  was  perfectly  clear  at  the  time. 
The  look-out  had  been  set,  although,  as  the  subsequent 
Court  of  Inquiry  remarked,  there  was  no  means  of  telling 
whether  the  watch  was  properly  kept.  At  all  events  the 
liner  strayed  seven  miles  out  of  her  course,  and  the  error 
of  navigation  claimed  a  heavy  penalty.     As  regards  the 


GRAVEYARDS    OF   THE    OCEAN  293 

Paris,  a  fog  prevailed  at  the  time,  the  engines  had  been 
reduced  to  half-speed,  and  apparently  the  officer  on  the 
bridge  was  in  doubt  as  to  his  precise  whereabouts.  He 
was  searching  for  the  Lizard  Light,  which,  had  it  been 
discovered,  would  have  enabled  the  liner  to  return  to  her 
right  path,  and  thereby  have  evaded  this  terrible  danger- 
spot.  From  the  passengers'  point  of  view  this  latter  dis- 
aster was  decidedly  uncanny,  since  they  could  see  the 
decrepit  masts  of  the  Mohegan  projecting  mournfully  from 
the  water  a  few  hundred  feet  away — mute  testimony  to  the 
fearful  consequences  attached  to  fouling  this  reef.  For  the 
second  time  in  her  career  this  liner  emerged  from  a  serious 
accident  without  any  loss  of  life.  By  dint  of  great  effort 
the  Paris  was  removed  from  her  perilous  position,  as 
described  in  another  chapter,  the  huge  gashes  in  her  hull 
were  repaired,  she  was  overhauled,  dressed  in  a  new  garb, 
given  another  name,  and  still  passes  the  spot  regularly 
where  she  narrowly  escaped  total  destruction. 

The  outlying  barriers  of  the  Scilly  Islands  are  even  more 
cruel  than  the  Manacles,  as  the  submerged  ridges  are  ex- 
posed to  the  full  fury  of  the  Atlantic  rollers.  These  con- 
cealed teeth  have  claimed  many  a  ship,  and  have  extracted 
a  heavy  toll  from  those  who  pass  this  way. 

Farther  up  the  English  Channel  is  the  shingly  spit 
thrusting  itself  seawards  from  the  dismal  stretch  of  Kentish 
marsh.  This  is  Dungeness,  which  the  mariner  holds  in 
fearful  dread.  In  every  gale  or  thick  fog  some  vessel  finds 
herself  in  trouble  off  this  point,  as  by  her  course  she  must 
round  a  corner  between  Dover  and  Beachy  Head.  The 
powerful  tug  steamers  in  the  former  port,  whenever  a  sum- 
mons for  assistance  is  received  from  the  west,  guess  that 
Dungeness  has  claimed  another  victim.  They  are  seldom 
wrong.  Collision  is  the  most  prevalent  form  of  accident 
off  this  nose  of  land,  and  the  tugs  have  had  some  very 
exciting  races  to  port  with  their  crippled  charges,  reaching 
Dover  in  the  nick  of  time.  Many  a  boat  which  has  fallen 
foul  of  another  ship  within  pistol-shot  of  the  warning  light- 
house has  limped  slowly  up  channel  in  the  hope  that  she 


294    STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST  OF   THE   WORLD 

will  reach  harbour  under  her  own  effort,  only  to  founder 
or  to  be  thrown  upon  the  inhospitable  beach  in  the  shadow 
of  the  cliffs  forming  St.  Margaret's  Bay. 

North  of  Dover  is  that  barrier  of  sand  forming  the 
rampart  to  the  anchorage  known  as  the  Downs.  The 
Goodwins  have  achieved  a  world-wide  notoriety.  Few 
steamers,  if  ever  they  bury  their  noses  in  its  soft,  viscous 
clutches,  escape  to  make  another  voyage.  They  settle 
down  quickly  into  the  soft  couch,  which  clings  to  them 
like  glue,  to  be  battered  to  pieces  by  storm  and  waves. 
When  one  lands  on  this  fearful  barrier  at  low  tide,  vivid 
impressions  of  the  terrible  toll  of  the  sea  are  revealed  in 
the  rotting,  jagged  and  blackened  timbers  of  many  a 
wind-jammer,  and  the  rusting  plates  of  a  steam  tramp, 
which  have  had  the  misfortune  to  foul  this  trap. 

The  heavy  volume  of  traffic  plying  not  only  up  and 
down,  but  also  across  the  Channel,  renders  it  one  of  the 
most  dangerous  waterways  in  the  world,  as  the  two  streams 
of  traffic  pass  one  another  at  right  angles.  When  one 
recalls  the  hundreds  of  vessels  of  all  descriptions  which 
beat  up  and  down  these  waters  in  the  course  of  a  day, 
it  is  surprising  that  disasters  are  not  more  frequent.  Now 
and  again  the  community  is  stunned  by  the  news  of  a 
frightful  catastrophe — a  liner  has  been  rammed  and  has 
gone  to  the  bottom  with  a  long  list  of  passengers.  In 
April  1854  the  Favourite  was  coming  home  from  Baltimore 
with  several  hundred  people,  bound  for  Bremen,  and  had 
entered  upon  the  last  lap  of  her  long  journey,  when  the 
Hotspur  crashed  into  her.  Those  were  the  days  before 
bulkheads,  water-tight  compartments  and  self-closing  doors 
were  known,  and  the  water  rushed  through  the  huge  rent 
with  terrific  fury.  The  Favourite  sank  like  a  stone  with 
some  300  passengers.  The  most  appalling  wreck  in  these 
crowded  waters,  however,  was  that  of  the  North  German 
Lloyd  liner  Elbe.  She  had  left  Bremen  for  New  York 
but  a  few  hours  before,  when  the  Crathie  ran  into  her. 
The  liner  buckled  up  like  paper  under  the  impact,  and 
disappeared  beneath  the  water  with  334  out  of  her  human 


A    BIG    HOLK 

'J'lio  starboaril  liow  of  the  Coroiiitla,  after  collision.     The  side  of  the  steamer  was  burst  asunder, 
being  cut  down  almost  to  the  keel.     Extensive  damage  was  done  to  the  interior. 
,The  injury  was  repaired  by  Swan,  Huntei  and  \\'igham  Richardson,  Ltd. 


=    Pi 

3        c 


=;«?  »-.-«»afc' 


GRAVEYARDS   OF   THE    OCEAN  295 

freight  of  350.  The  worst  feature  of  this  disaster  was  the 
callousness  of  the  Crathie,  which,  after  backing  out  of  the 
liner,  proceeded  on  her  way  without  extending  the  slightest 
assistance  or  even  inquiring  how  the  liner  had  fared. 
When  she  reached  Rotterdam  she  was  arrested  promptly, 
pronounced  solely  responsible  for  the  catastrophe,  and 
mulcted  in  damages  to  the  tune  of  565,500  florins,  which 
sum  was  awarded  to  the  owners  of  the  lost  liner. 

Taking  the  southern  side  of  the  English  Channel,  there 
is  a  danger-spot  as  awe-inspiring  as  the  Manacles — the 
Channel  Islands.  The  waters  around  these  islands  are 
infested  thickly  with  granite  rocks,  in  the  form  of  isolated 
humps  rising  abruptly  from  deep  water,  or  wicked, 
rambling,  barely  submerged  reefs  and  ridges.  Possibly 
the  worst  clump  is  that  known  as  the  Casquets,  off  the 
coast  of  Alderney,  skirting  the  edge  of  the  highway 
between  Plymouth  and  Cherbourg,  and  also  the  path 
for  vessels  taking  a  southerly  route  from  the  North  Sea  to 
pick  up  the  Ushant  Light.  The  loss  of  life  around  these 
death-traps  has  been  exceedingly  heavy,  and  the  smashed 
hulks  of  innumerable  vessels  litter  the  sea-bed.  The 
heaviest  sufferers  have  been  the  cross-channel  boats  plying 
not  only  between  English  ports  and  the  islands,  but  also 
with  the  French  coast  between  Cherbourg  and  St.  Malo. 
The  strait  between  Jersey  and  the  French  mainland  is 
dotted  with  reefs  and  ridges,  and  the  navigation  of  these 
waters  in  a  gale  and  dirty  weather  demands  the  skill  of 
a  pilot.  The  last  occasion  on  which  the  Casquet  cluster 
of  rocks  loomed  prominently  in  the  public  eye  was  at 
Easter  1899,  when  the  Stella  blundered  into  one  of  the 
humps  protruding  from  the  angry  seas,  and  was  sent 
to  the  bottom  with  sixty-five  passengers.  Before  the 
friendly  lighthouse  shed  its  warning  light,  wrecks  in  this 
wild  district  were  so  frequent  that  a  rough  stone  domicile 
was  erected  upon  one  of  the  larger  islets  to  provide  shelter 
to  those  who  were  so  unfortunate  as  to  suffer  shipwreck, 
where  they  could  remain  until  help  came  from  the  island ; 
while  on   storm-swept  Alderney   is  a   grass-grown    God's 


396    STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST  OF   THE   WORLD 

Acre  filled  with  those  who  have  paid  their  last  account 
with  the  hungry  waves. 

At  the  entrance  to  the  English  Channel  where  the  French 
coast  protrudes  far  into  the  Atlantic,  forming  the  northern 
arm  of  the  indentation  in  the  coast-line  known  as  the  Bay 
of  Biscay,  and  where  the  mainland  terminates  in  a  dis- 
hevelled mass  of  rocks  and  islets,  to  form  the  deadly 
Ushant,  the  sea  has  waged  its  war  with  awful  severity. 
Liners  going  to  and  coming  from  the  south  describe  a 
sweeping  curve  in  leaving  or  entering  the  English 
Channel,  and  in  rough  weather  the  navigator  stands  well 
out  to  sea,  as  he  has  no  desire  to  be  caught  by  the 
numerous  and  wickedly  rushing  currents  among  these 
rocky  ridges.  It  is  the  most  terrible  part  of  the  French 
mainland,  and  every  effort  has  been  made  to  mitigate 
the  risks  to  the  navigator  by  the  provision  of  several 
lighthouses,  so  that  the  perilous  coast  is  well  patrolled. 
Nevertheless,  many  a  tramp  which  has  been  pounded  to 
disablement  by  the  heavy  cross  seas  of  the  Atlantic  has 
escaped  swamping  in  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  only  to  be  battered 
to  fragments  upon  the  Ushant  rocks.  This  graveyard 
attracted  the  attention  of  the  non-travelling  public  in  June 
1896,  when  the  Drummond  Castle  fouled  the  pitiless  rocks, 
and  came  to  an  untimely  end  with  193  of  her  crew  and 
147  of  her  passengers.  Those  who  escaped  a  watery  grave 
suffered  untold  hardships  from  exposure,  mitigated  by 
the  humane  and  sympathetic  action  of  the  Bretons  and  the 
curd  of  St.  Molene,  whose  kindness  was  rewarded  by  a 
subscription  raised  in  England,  and  wherewith  the  little 
village  was  presented  with  a  clock  and  steeple  for  its 
church,  as  well  as  numerous  personal  gifts. 

There  are  few  gaunt  rocks  rearing  their  heads  above 
the  waste  of  water  which  are  unprovided  with  means 
of  warning  the  mariner  of  his  whereabouts,  either  by 
sound  or  vision,  but  this  is  the  case  with  Rockall.  This 
death-trap  rises  from  the  bed  of  the  northernmost  Atlantic. 
Probably  very  few  people  ever  had  heard  of  the  name  of 
this  islet,  which  stands  182  miles  out  to  sea  from  St.  Kilda, 


GRAVEYARDS   OF   THE    OCEAN  297 

until  July  3,  1904,  when  the  Scandinavian  emigrant  ship 
Norge  missed  her  way,  crashed  into  it,  and  was  wounded 
so  mortally  as  to  sink  to  the  bottom  in  a  very  short  time 
with  750  of  her  hapless  passengers.  The  average  atlas  may 
be  searched  in  vain  for  this  rock,  but  it  stands  just  east- 
ward of  the  steamship  lanes  favoured  by  the  Scandinavian 
vessels  running  to  New  York  via  the  Pentland  Firth.  True, 
the  volume  of  traffic  in  these  latitudes  is  very  small,  but 
as  it  is  in  one  of  the  most  deserted  stretches  of  the  North 
Atlantic,  far  from  the  beaten  track,  the  plight  of  those  who 
happen  to  foul  its  pitiless  fangs  is  desperate  indeed.  It 
is  a  kind  of  no-man's  rock,  unthought  of  and  uncared  for, 
but  capable  of  sending  a  shiver  through  the  whole  world, 
as  this  particular  catastrophe  demonstrated.  Fortunately, 
in  this  latitude  the  fog  evil  does  not  assume  impressive  pro- 
portions, as  the  rock  lies  just  clear  of  the  fog  zone,  which 
hangs  around  the  north-west  coasts  of  Scotland. 

The  whirling  waters  which  rush  through  the  narrow, 
bottle-neck  strait  forming  the  connection  between  the 
Mediterranean  Sea  and  the  Atlantic  is  an  evil  stretch  of 
water  feared  by  mariners.  The  currents  swirl  with 
fiendish  velocity,  and  the  conditions  in  dirty  weather  have 
been  productive  of  many  calamities.  It  was  in  these 
troublesome  seas  on  an  inclement  night  that  the  captain 
of  the  P.  &  O.  liner  Delhi  missed  his  course,  to  scrape  over 
the  reef  standing  out  from  the  wild,  inhospitable  North 
African  shore,  and  to  become  a  total  wreck.  Equally  fear- 
some are  the  coasts  of  the  Red  Sea  until  the  mouth  of  the 
Gulf  of  Aden  is  entered  or  left,  while  the  narrow  run  of 
water,  the  Straits  of  Bab-el-Mandeb,  has  an  appropriate 
name,  "The  Gate  of  Tears."  The  island  of  Perim  is 
the  centre  of  a  surging  vortex  of  rapid  currents,  with 
a  forbidding  shore  on  either  hand,  offering  very  slender 
chances  to  the  wrecked  crew  and  passengers  of  a  vessel. 
The  lane  for  the  liners  making  for  or  coming  from 
Colombo  is  between  the  island  of  Socotra  and  Cape 
Guardafui  on  the  Somali  coast,  while  the  lane  between 
Bombay  and   Aden    runs   north   of   this   island.      In    this 


298    STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST  OF   THE   WORLD 

region  the  perils  of  shipwreck  are  supplemented  by  the 
marauding  expeditions  of  the  nomads  dwelling  on  either 
shore,  for  they  regard  a  wreck  as  lawful  prey,  and  the 
hapless  human  beings  who  succeed  in  cheating  the  sea  run 
the  risk  of  encountering  death  either  from  starvation  on 
the  arid  shores,  or  from  the  diabolical  inhumanity  of  the 
barbarous  tribes  eking  out  an  existence  on  the  sun- 
blistered  sand.  The  P.  &  O.  liner  Aden  was  caught  in  the 
toils  of  this  forbidding  danger-spot  in  June  1897,  and  lost 
87  passengers. 

Ask  any  mariner  who  is  familiar  with  the  seven  seas 
his  opinion  of  Cape  Hatteras,  and  he  will  express  it  in 
true  sailor  terms,  with  an  accompanying  shudder.  This 
projecting  spit  of  coast  off  North  Carolina  is  to  the  United 
States  what  the  Goodwins  are  to  England.  How  many 
magnificent  vessels  and  lives  this  graveyard  has  claimed 
no  one  can  say.  The  ocean  hereabouts  is  littered  with 
shallow  shoals  and  wicked  sand-bars,  which,  if  they  once 
grasp  a  vessel,  never  let  it  escape.  Fine  weather  in  this 
latitude  and  region  is  rarely  known  to  the  navigator,  and 
if  he  is  overwhelmed  by  bad  weather  and  survives  the 
tempest,  his  craft  generally  will  bear  grim  evidences  of 
the  conflict.  The  wind-jammer  suffers  especially,  as  masts 
and  sails  are  invariably  stripped,  while  the  steamer  has  a 
sorry-looking  deck  after  it  has  emerged  through  the 
battering  mill  of  a  Cape  Hatteras  storm.  More  ships  are 
wrecked  at  this  point  during  the  course  of  a  year  than 
upon  any  other  part  of  the  North  American  continent,  and 
the  greatest  sufferers  are  among  the  large  fleet  of  vessels 
wandering  up  and  down  the  coast-line  with  local  traffic. 

Until  a  few  years  ago  the  St.  Lawrence  River  had  an 
unenviable  reputation  ;  even  to-day  it  has  not  fully  survived 
it,  and  underwriters  regard  it  askance.  I  have  seen  as 
many  as  four  riddled,  rusting  hulls,  presenting  forlorn 
sights,  cast  on  the  banks  near  Quebec.  Either  they  have 
run  aground  to  save  themselves,  or  have  been  hauled  out 
of  the  fairway  to  leave  the  channel  open,  only  to  become  so 
damaged  as  to  be  written  off  as  total  losses.     Now,  how- 


GRAVEYARDS   OF   THE    OCEAN  299 

ever,  this  noble  river  is  better  lighted,  and  navigation  is 
fairly  safe,  though  the  navigable  channel  is  somewhat 
narrow,  with  certain  disaster  if  the  slightest  deviation  is 
made  from  it.  Calamity  in  this  case  appears  to  be  centred 
upon  the  tramp,  although  now  and  again  the  monotony  of 
this  class  of  wreck  is  varied  by  the  incapacitation  of  a  small 
liner. 

Lying  due  east  of  and  about  eighty-five  miles  off  Nova 
Scotia  is  the  most  ill-famed  spot  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 
This  is  a  crescent-shaped  stretch  of  sand,  vainly  endeavour- 
ing to  keep  its  dreary  knoll  above  the  surging  ocean.  Sable 
Island  is  its  name,  and  its  mere  mention  sends  an  involun- 
tary shiver  through  the  master  of  the  tramp  and  wind- 
jammer frequenting  those  seas.  He  knows  it  by  its  reputa- 
tion. He  has  no  desire  to  make  a  close  acquaintance,  as  he 
knows  only  too  well  that  he  might  lose  his  staunch  little 
craft,  and  probably  have  a  desperate  struggle  for  his  life. 

The  danger  lies  not  so  much  in  the  sandy  isle  itself,  but 
in  the  shoals  and  sand-bars  which  stretch  far  out  to  sea  on 
either  shore.  At  some  places  a  small  vessel  dare  not 
approach  within  sixteen  miles  of  the  undulating,  shimmer- 
ing line  breaking  up  the  horizon,  as  the  breakers  roll, 
tumble  and  foam  over  bank  after  bank,  set  behind  one 
another  like  lines  of  soldiers.  If  a  ship  were  so  fortunate 
as  to  miss  one  bar,  it  would  be  caught  by  another.  It  is 
sufficiently  awe-inspiring  to  look  upon  the  waste  of  foam 
when  the  Atlantic  is  at  rest,  but  when  this  ocean  is  writhing 
in  the  throes  of  a  gale  the  outlook  is  a  thousand  times  more 
terrifying.  There  is  only  one  possible  point  where  a  land- 
ing can  be  effected  to  render  succour  and  provisions  to  the 
two  lighthouses  erected  on  this  isolated  spot,  and  even  then 
the  little  steamer  dare  not  approach  within  a  mile. 

Sable  Island  has  earned  the  lugubrious  name,  "The 
Graveyard  of  the  Atlantic."  And  it  deserves  it.  Accord- 
ing to  Mr.  S.  D.  Macdonald,  F.G.S.,  of  Halifax,  who  has 
made  a  special  study  of  this  danger-spot,  it  has  been  the 
scene  of  no  fewer  than  150  disasters  since  1802,  and  he  has 
prepared  an  interesting  chart  indicating  the  points  where 


300    STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST  OF   THE   WORLD 

the  various  types  of  craft  have  come  to  grief.  A  perusal 
of  this  grim  record  proves  that  the  whole  barrier  has  no 
specially  fatal  spots,  but  that  every  mile  is  haunted  with 
the  ghosts  of  vessels  and  their  unlucky  crews.  On  the 
island  is  a  dismal  though  revered  small  enclosure — the  last 
resting-place  of  those  victims  of  the  sea  who  have  been 
retrieved  by  one  or  other  of  the  twenty-two  men  imprisoned 
on  its  sterile  banks  in  the  interests  of  humanity. 

Although  this  graveyard  is  slipping  gradually  from 
sight,  centuries  must  pass  before  it  disappears  entirely 
from  mortal  ken,  unless  a  seismic  disturbance  hurries  the 
process  of  demolition.  Even  when  all  vision  of  sand  has 
passed  from  sight  it  will  still  be  a  treacherous  spot,  with 
the  hungry  quicksand  lurking  beneath  the  water  to  trap 
and  hold  the  innocent  vessel.  But  what  is  far  worse, 
in  regard  to  navigation,  is  the  fact  that  the  whole  mass  of 
sand  is  moving  slowly  but  surely  farther  out  into  the 
Atlantic,  as  if  maddened  that  its  present  whereabouts  are 
so  well  known  that  the  mariner  avoids  its  precincts,  and 
so  seeks  to  destroy  in  new  fields.  In  the  course  of  lOO 
years  the  island  has  moved  bodily  eastwards  a  distance 
of  25  miles.  Its  disappearance  would  not  be  mourned, 
provided  that  it  was  covered  by  a  sufficient  depth  of  water 
to  permit  the  floating  of  vessels  in  safety  over  its  sucking 
mass ;  but  so  long  as  it  is  visible  in  any  form  it  will  be 
known  by  its  sinister  name. 

Yet,  if  one  asks  an  old  salt  who  has  roved  every  sea 
between  the  Poles  which  is  the  most  wicked  stretch  of 
water  on  the  globe,  his  reply  probably  will  provoke  amaze- 
ment. His  verdict  would  not  be  in  favour  of  the  North 
Sea,  the  English  Channel,  Cape  Hatteras,  or  even  Sable 
Island.  He  would  reply  bluntly — the  waters  round  Cape 
Colony.  In  passing  from  the  eastern  to  the  western  ports 
of  South  Africa  the  vessel  threads  the  most  cruel  sea  in 
the  world,  where  wind,  tide,  currents  and  waves  all  com- 
bine against  the  ship,  and  harass  the  master  sorely.  One 
has  only  to  recall  the  innumerable  wrecks  that  have 
occurred   on   these   coasts   to   prove   the   statement.      The 


GRAVEYARDS    OF   THE    OCEAN  301 

wreck  of  the  Birkenhead  alone  would  serve  to  emphasise 
the  point,  but  the  survivor  of  many  a  tramp  who  has  parted 
unwillingly  with  his  ship  on  this  shore  is  able  to  relate  just 
as  heroic  and  grim  stories  of  the  fight  for  life. 

In  our  school-boy  days  lurid  stories  were  painted  of  the 
Sargasso  Sea  and  of  the  maelstrom  off  Norway.  We  were 
told  that  ships  never  ventured  into  those  stretches  of  water, 
or  if  they  did,  never  were  heard  of  again.  The  Sargasso 
in  particular  was  a  fabled  graveyard,  where  derelicts,  after 
their  aimless  wanderings  about  the  Atlantic,  were  drawn 
in,  to  be  seen  no  more.  Unfortunately  for  the  imaginative 
young  mind,  steam  has  dispelled  these  illusions — they  are 
no  more  true  than  the  stories  associated  with  the  Flying 
Dutchman  and  other  phantom  ships  of  the  sea.  The 
Sargasso  Sea  is  no  more  difficult  to  traverse  than  the  lakes 
of  North  America,  Windermere  or  Loch  Lomond.  Many 
a  captain  has  travelled  across  its  breadth  and  reputedly 
most  wicked  part,  where,  we  were  told,  there  was  a  huge 
whirlpool  which  acted  unwittingly  as  a  destructor.  He 
may  have  noticed  a  greater  accumulation  of  algcs,  or  gulf- 
weed,  but  nothing  else  to  distinguish  this  area  of  water 
from  the  more  crowded  parts  of  the  Atlantic.  More  vessels 
would  steam  across  the  Sargasso  Sea  to-day  were  it  not 
for  the  fact  that  it  lies  somewhat  off  the  beaten  tracks. 
The  illusion  in  regard  to  the  Norwegian  maelstrom  has 
been  shattered  just  as  relentlessly.  There  is  a  violent 
eddying,  caused  by  rapidly  running  currents,  at  this  spot, 
but  the  sea  is  easily  negotiable  in  calm  weather.  In  stormy 
periods  the  average  master  steers  clear  of  it,  not  because  of 
the  mythical  whirlpool,  but  from  dictates  of  prudence  to 
avoid  an  unkind,  rock-bound  coast  washed  by  rapidly 
moving  currents.  From  the  danger  point  of  view  neither 
of  the  last-named  is  to  be  compared  in  wickedness  with 
many  of  the  Graveyards  of  the  Ocean  which  I  have 
described. 


CHAPTER    XXII 

STEAMSHIP   SURGERY 

The  inexorable  hand  of  Father  Time  is  felt  upon  the 
steamship,  just  as  forcibly  as  upon  other  methods  of 
transportation.  The  lordly  and  superlatively  luxurious 
liner,  which  occasions  so  much  wonder  to-day,  becomes 
the  commonplace  of  to-morrow,  so  rapid  are  the  advances 
in  steamship  constructional  skill  and  those  of  the  decorative 
architect.  A  liner  is  a  costly  luxury  :  now-a-days  a  million 
of  money  brings  a  very  small  return  in  matters  belonging 
to  steamship  travel.  The  public  is  extremely  fickle.  It 
loves  to  live  in  luxury  when  afloat,  and  the  shipowner  is 
hard-pressed  to  fulfil  these  desires  in  order  to  retain  the 
patronage  of  his  client. 

Underwriters  also  will  not  part  with  the  vessel  which 
they  have  insured  heavily  without  a  herculean  effort  to- 
wards reclamation  and  rejuvenation.  A  ship  may  have 
rested  upon  the  bed  of  the  sea  and  have  become  encrusted 
with  barnacles,  while  its  curtains  and  hangings  may  have 
been  rotted  and  discoloured  by  prolonged  immersion.  But 
that  does  not  mean  that  the  vessel  is  unfitted  for  further 
service.  A  hole  can  be  repaired ;  paint  and  new  upholstery 
are  capable  of  restoring  a  departed  glory  and  fine  finish ; 
while,  when  its  name  is  changed,  the  public  fail  to  associate 
the  new  with  the  old.  They  have  no  idea  that  the  stately 
vessels  whose  decks  they  tread  may  have  made  a  deter- 
mined effort  to  penetrate  Davy  Jones's  locker.  There  is 
one  popular  liner  riding  the  Atlantic  to-day  which  about 
a  decade  ago  made  a  very  spirited  attempt  to  enter  an  ocean 
graveyard.  It  was  recovered,  considerably  wounded  and 
battered,  but  the  shipbuilder  attacked  the  pounded  hull, 
replaced  the  plates  which  had  been  torn  away  and  strained, 
while   the   architect,   entering   its   interior,    replanned   and 

302 


STEAMSHIP    SURGERY  303 

redecorated  its  cabins  and  state-rooms,  so  that  when  it 
re-emerged  from  the  shipyard  it  was,  to  all  intents  and 
purposes,  a  new  vessel.  It  was  rechristened,  and  to-day 
it  spans  the  broad  Atlantic  within  a  week. 

The  shipyard  is  not  only  a  cradle  on  which  new  mari- 
time titans  are  reared ;  it  is  also  the  ward  in  which  injured 
vessels  are  submitted  to  surgical  operations,  to  restore 
them  for  further  use  or  to  give  them  a  new  lease  of  life. 
Many  of  the  injuries  inflicted  are  the  result  of  too  affection- 
ate embraces  with  other  vessels,  a  rock-bound  coast,  or  a 
glutinous  sand  shoal.  The  injuries  which  come  for  treat- 
ment are  various  :  one  ship  has  sustained  a  broken  nose, 
another  has  fractured  ribs,  a  third  has  severe  abrasions 
of  the  hull,  a  fourth  has  been  ravaged  by  the  fire  fiend, 
while  still  a  fifth  may  require  to  be  severed  and  lengthened. 

The  ship  in  hospital  is  a  dismal  sight.  Maybe  it  arrives 
swathed  in  bandages,  where  the  salvage  engineer  has 
extended  first  aid  with  formidable  patches  of  wood.  The 
surgical  staff,  comprising  the  ship-designer — he  of  the 
mathematical  calculations — the  riveters,  the  frame-bender 
and  the  marine  engineer,  apparently  play  sad  havoc.  The 
cripple  or  aged  is  first  warped  into  a  dry  dock,  supported 
on  crutches  or  props,  and  keel-blocks,  leaving  the  ineit 
mass  high  and  dry,  when  the  water  is  pumped  out.  The 
nurses  appear  upon  the  scene,  and  with  hammers,  chisels, 
cranes  and  many  other  weird  devices  and  appliances  set 
to  work.  The  body  around  the  wound  is  laid  bare,  and 
the  damaged  parts  are  amputated.  Then  fresh  pieces  of 
metal  are  fashioned  and  put  into  place,  a  new  skin  is 
applied  over  the  gaping  hole,  made  fast  and  tight  with 
rivets,  the  painter  comes  aboard  and  with  brush  and 
oleaginous  compounds  or  other  expedients  imparts  a  fresh 
protective  coating  to  the  affected  part,  cleans  and  restores 
the  remainder,  the  props  are  removed,  the  water  is 
admitted  and  the  vessel  is  hauled  off  her  operating-table, 
otherwise  out  of  the  dry  dock.  A  new  life-stream  of  steam 
is  circulated  through  her  engines.  Her  steel  muscles  are 
set  in  motion  once  more,  and  she  moves  away  as  sedately 


304    STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST  OF   THE   WORLD 

as  on  the  day  she  left  her  creators'  hands.  There  may  be 
a  little  stiffness  in  the  joints,  but  this  soon  passes  off  as  she 
settles  down  to  her  work. 

The  march  of  progress  is  responsible  to  a  marked  degree 
for  the  aid  of  the  steamship  surgeon.  When  the  screw 
propeller  came  into  vogue,  several  steamship  companies, 
catering  for  the  over-seas  passenger  trade,  found  them- 
selves at  a  heavy  disadvantage.  They  possessed  paddle- 
wheel  vessels,  many  of  them  almost  new.  Accordingly, 
in  order  to  come  into  the  ranks  of  modernity,  they 
arranged  for  their  vessels  to  be  converted  to  the  new  order 
of  things.  Among  these  owners  was  the  Compagnie 
G6n6rale  Transatlantique.  Its  fleet  was  comparatively  new 
when  the  screw  propeller  emphasised  its  superiority.  So  it 
decided  upon  a  bold  course  of  action  in  187 1.  A  contract 
was  made  with  Hawthorn,  Leslie  &  Company  of  Hebburn- 
on-Tyne  for  complete  modernisation.  Five  vessels  were 
handed  over  to  these  steamship  surgeons,  and  their  task 
was  of  a  most  comprehensive  and  intricate  character.  The 
paddle  machinery  and  wheels  were  not  only  to  be  removed 
to  make  way  for  the  screw  propeller  and  its  machinery,  but 
the  vessels  were  to  be  lengthened  fifty  feet  into  the  bargain. 
Such  extensive  treatment  virtually  involved  the  recon- 
struction of  the  vessels.  The  hull  had  to  be  disembowelled, 
then  cut  in  half,  the  sections  drawn  apart,  new  frames 
inserted,  together  with  modern  cabins  and  state-room 
accommodation.  It  was  a  delicate  task,  but  the  British 
engineers  displayed  their  ability  most  effectively,  and  when 
they  turned  the  old  ships  loose  once  more,  they  were  un- 
recognisable, owing  to  their  complete  transformation. 
They  were  slimmer,  more  graceful,  and  gave  more 
emphatic  appearances  of  speed  and  comfort.  They  proved 
great  favourites  with  passengers  in  their  new  guise,  and 
for  years  upheld  the  mail  service  between  France  and  the 
United  States. 

Lengthening  a  liner  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  of 
steamship  surgical  operations.  One  of  the  earliest  and 
most    noticeable    undertakings    of    this    character    was    in 


AN    UNUSl  AL    SPECTACLE 

The  stern  and  bow  uf  one  ve>sel  nijore  i  side  by  >id-'.     The  latter  represents  the  new 
forward  half  of  tne  .Uihvxui-Le  after  beui,'  laun:he.i. 


TllK    SAI.VAc;KI)    half    0\-     TllK     I///  /;•. /TAVV:    IN    DRV    DOCK 

Showini;  llic  ra,;i;cil  cd^cs  of  .sleul  caused  by  the  dynaiuite  carti  id.^'cs.  uhereby  tliu  \esscl  w: 

cut  in  tuaiii  while  helii  on  the  rocks.     Tile  stern  half  was  toweil  Into  the   Tyne, 

assistinsT  with  her  own  eiicrines. 


STEAMSHIP    SURGERY  305 

connection  with  the  P.  &  O.  Hner  Poona,  which,  although 
a  good  boat,  was  considered  by  the  owners  as  possible  of 
distinct  improvement.  So  they  sent  her  to  the  Clyde, 
where  she  was  cut  in  twain,  and  about  sixty  feet  inserted 
between  the  two  ends.  Before  the  lengthening  process  this 
steamship  was  described  as  a  boat  with  two  ends  but  no 
middle.  When  she  returned  from  the  shipyard  after  her 
operation,  she  looked  as  trim  and  as  attractive  as  any  vessel 
in  her  trade.  Moreover,  she  benefited  from  the  extension, 
since  she  notched  another  knot  per  hour. 

The  Norddeutscher  Lloyd  Company  also  had  a  steamer 
which  required  to  be  brought  up-to-date  to  meet  the 
exigencies  of  the  times.  This  was  the  Wittekind.  She 
was  sent  to  the  hospital  at  Wallsend-on-Tyne  and  dry- 
docked.  There  Messrs.  Swan,  Hunter,  &  Wigham 
Richardson,  Limited,  cut  her  in  halves  amidships.  It  was 
an  exciting  time  drawing  the  two  halves  apart.  Hawsers 
were  attached  to  the  bow,  and  when  the  command  was 
given  powerful  winches  commenced  to  grunt  and  creak 
as  they  hauled  steadily  at  the  cables.  There  was  a  terrible 
groaning,  followed  by  a  terrifying  Zip !  The  cables 
snapped  in  two  like  pack-threads.  Thicker  and  stronger 
hawsers  were  brought  up,  passed  round  the  drums  of  the 
winches  and  made  fast  to  the  bow.  Once  more  the  steam 
pressure  was  applied.  The  drums  revolved  slowly,  and 
amid  terrible  creaking  and  groaning  the  bow  was  hauled 
back. 

The  foreman  sang  out  a  command,  and  the  winches 
stopped.  The  two  pieces  were  sufficiently  far  apart. 
Expert  workmen  then  advanced  with  their  instruments  and 
"sighted  "  the  two  moieties  to  see  that  they  were  absolutely 
in  line.  A  little  packing  here,  and  little  loosening  there, 
and  the  two  parts  were  dead  true.  Then  the  riveters 
attacked  the  keelson,  inserting  a  new  length  of  back-bone, 
frames  were  swung  up  and  lowered  into  position,  beams 
and  girders  of  steel  were  lowered  and  made  fast,  the  shell 
plating  was  attached,  the  decks  connected  up,  new  state- 
rooms and  other  accommodation  installed,  and  in  a  few 

X 


3o6    STEAMSHIP  CONQUEST  OF  THE   WORLD 

months  the  Wittekind  steamed  out  of  Bremen  laden  with 
passengers  and  cargo,  quite  a  new  vessel.  Among  British 
shipbuilders,  the  lengthening  of  a  liner  has  become  quite  a 
commonplace  occurrence  :  the  masters  of  craft  think  no 
more  of  introducing  fifty,  sixty,  or  more  feet  of  hull  into 
a  liner,  than  of  replacing  a  broken  propeller,  and  the  ship 
invariably  benefits  from  the  operation. 

The  Canadian  Pacific  Railway  owns  a  smart  line  of  ships 
plying  on  the  Great  Lakes  of  North  America,  bearing 
passengers  anxious  to  enjoy  a  unique  passage  between 
Port  Arthur  and  Owen  Sound.  The  greater  number  of 
these  fresh-water  liners  have  been  built  on  the  Clyde,  and 
dispatched  to  their  home  port  across  the  Atlantic  under 
their  own  steam.  Upon  reaching  Canada  the  tumble 
of  water  forming  Niagara  has  had  to  be  compassed,  via 
the  Canal.  Unfortunately  the  locks  of  this  artificial  water- 
way are  not  adapted  to  the  passage  of  lengthy  vessels. 
But  the  shipbuilders  have  not  been  dismayed.  The  vessels 
leaving  the  Clyde  have  carried  one  or  two  expert  workmen 
armed  with  plans  and  drawings.  These  latter  have  indi- 
cated very  plainly  where  the  ships  might  be  divided  in 
twain,  and  on  the  east  side  of  the  locks  the  rivets  holding 
the  plates  amidships  as  well  as  the  keelson  have  been 
extracted.  Each  part,  with  a  bulkhead  strong  and  solid 
enough  to  hold  back  the  water,  has  been  floated  through  the 
lock  separately.  Upon  reaching  the  western  end  of  the 
lock,  the  two  parts  have  been  taken  into  a  dry  dock,  where 
the  sections  have  been  brought  dead  in  line,  the  water 
pumped  up,  the  keelson  reconnected,  the  rivets,  as  well  as 
the  plates,  replaced,  and  the  vessels  then  have  steamed  to 
their  home  port,  just  as  if  they  had  floated  through  the 
locks  intact  and  never  had  been  dismembered. 

I  have  described  the  remarkable  salvage  of  the  stern 
section  of  the  Milwaukee,  which  was  wrecked  off  the  east 
coast  of  Scotland,  and  how  the  stern-half,  after  severance, 
worked  its  way  over  i8o  miles  back  to  the  Tyne,  partly 
under  its  own  steam.  When  it  reached  the  yards  of 
Messrs.    Swan,    Hunter,    &    Wigham    Richardson    it   was 


STEAMSHIP    SURGERY  307 

dry-docked.  The  dynamite  cartridges  amputating  the  bow 
when  firmly  jammed  on  the  Errol  Rocks  had  played  sad 
havoc  with  the  plates.  They  were  jagged  and  twisted  in 
the  most  fantastic  manner,  as  well  as  being  bent  outwards. 
The  rivets  were  drawn  and  the  torn  and  damaged  plates 
removed.  The  decks  forward  of  the  bulkhead  were  littered 
with  masses  of  rock,  shingle  and  sand.  This  debris 
was  cleared  out  and  preparations  were  hastened  forward  to 
permit  a  new  bow  to  be  attached;  the  latter  was  built 
on  a  slip  in  the  usual  manner  and  launched.  People  on 
Tyneside  were  treated  to  a  unique  spectacle,  the  bow 
and  stern  of  a  ship  pointing  in  the  same  direction,  because 
the  two  sections  were  moored  side  by  side. 

The  stern  was  now  floated  into  the  dry  dock  once  more 
and  secured.  Then  the  bow  was  brought  in  and  gradually 
warped  up  until  the  expert  "sighters"  signalled  that  both 
were  dead  in  line  in  every  particular.  Both  were  then 
made  fast,  so  that  neither  could  move  an  inch.  The  water 
was  pumped  out  and  the  two  parts  were  drawn  tightly 
together  to  bring  the  holes  in  the  strakes  of  plates  of  the 
new  bow  exactly  over  the  relative  holes  of  the  respective 
plates  of  the  stern  section.  The  rivets  were  driven  home, 
and  when  the  water  was  re-admitted  the  splicing  was 
effected  so  perfectly  that  no  one  could  distinguish  the  joint. 

This  ranks  as  one  of  the  best  pieces  of  work  of  its 
character  on  record.  When  the  Milwaukee  once  more 
floated  upon  the  bosom  of  the  Tyne,  her  gross  tonnage 
differed  from  her  original  weight  by  only  six  tons ! 
Since  this  classic  repair  considerable  praise  has  been 
bestowed  upon  the  construction  and  fitting  of  a  new  bow 
to  the  severed  Suevic,  but  this  operation  lacked  novelty. 
The  only  striking  feature  in  connection  with  it  was  the 
towing  of  the  new  bow  from  Belfast  to  Southampton,  but 
so  far  as  the  actual  idea  and  connecting-up  were  concerned, 
the  shipbuilders  in  this  instance  were  able  to  follow  the 
precedent  set  by  the  repairers  of  the  Milwaukee,  which 
ranked  certainly  as  a  decided  triumph  for  Tyneside  ship- 
repairing  skill. 
X  2 


3o8    STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST  OF  THE   WORLD 

Another  wonderful  illustration  of  the  shipbuilder's 
surgical  ability  was  exhibited  in  connection  with  the  Russian 
ice-breaker  Ermack.  As  originally  designed  by  Admiral 
Makaroff ,  and  built  by  Sir  William  Armstrong,  Whitworth 
&  Company,  this  unique  vessel  was  fitted  with  a  screw 
propeller  in  the  bow.  It  was  anticipated  that  the  provision 
of  this  additional  screw  would  facilitate  the  clearing  away 
of  the  ice  as  it  was  broken  up  by  the  weight  of  the  bow, 
thus  giving  a  more  open  channel  as  the  ship  moved 
forward.  When  the  Ermack  was  set  to  work  in  the  Baltic, 
however,  expectations  were  not  fulfilled,  and  it  was  decided 
to  dispense  with  this  front  propeller. 

Accordingly  the  Ermack  returned  to  the  Tyne  to  be  fitted 
with  a  new  bow.  She  was  dry-docked  by  Swan,  Hunter, 
&  Wigham  Richardson,  and  the  forepart  of  the  vessel  was 
cut  away  completely,  together  with  the  propeller  and  its 
tube.  While  this  work  was  in  progress  a  new  bow  was 
designed,  constructed  and  launched,  to  be  attached  to  the 
ship.  This  operation  was  somewhat  delicate,  and  de- 
manded special  arrangements.  It  was  necessary  to  build 
a  special  pontoon  on  which  to  float  the  new  bow,  to  bring 
it  more  easily  into  position.  This  pontoon  acted  as  a  kind 
of  cradle  and  supported  the  new  structure,  as  shown  in 
the  illustration  facing  p.  312. 

Launching-ways  were  laid  down  in  the  dock  in  which 
the  main  part  of  the  vessel  was  secured,  and  the  new  bow, 
on  its  pontoon,  was  floated  into  the  dock  and  brought  to 
rest  fairly  and  squarely  upon  these  launching-ways. 
Powerful  hauling  tackle  was  then  attached  to  the  new 
structure,  and  it  was  dragged  forwards  bodily  until  it  came 
up  to,  and  dead  in  line  with,  the  after  part.  The  two  sections 
were  then  connected  up.  When  this  task  was  completed 
the  pontoon  was  demolished,  and  the  Ermack  refloated  out 
of  dock,  to  steam  back  to  the  scene  of  her  operations  in 
the  Russian  seas. 

Although  a  vessel  when  she  meets  with  an  accident  may 
seem  to  ride  easily  in  her  unusual  situation,  considerable 
damage  often  is  done  which  is  not  apparent  to  the  eye, 


JOINING    THE    OLD    AND    NEW    PARTS    OF    THE    MlLirACKF.E 
The  two  sections  were  floated  into  dry  dock,  brought  dead  in  line,  and  then  connected. 


^ 


THE    RESTORED    MlLlfACKF-Ii 

Tlie  part  forward  of  the  dotted  line  represents  tlie  section  which  was  built  and  added 
to  the  salvasred  stern. 


o  s 


a.    ^  S 


STEAMSHIP    SURGERY  309 

in  addition  to  holes,  broken  ribs  and  splintered  plates. 
When  the  wreck  is  received  into  the  hospital  she  has  to  be 
submitted  to  an  operation  akin  to  "lining-up"  in  the  re- 
erection  of  a  motor-car.  She  has  to  be  sighted  to  see  that 
all  her  lines  are  as  true  as  they  were  on  the  day  she  slipped 
down  the  ways.  She  may  have  been  buckled,  bent  or 
twisted  by  the  action  of  the  waves.  The  repair  is  by  no 
means  restricted  to  the  visible  area.  Often  when  a  ship 
has  been  wrecked  and  salvaged,  the  owners  take  the  oppor- 
tunity of  having  the  craft  remodelled  and  modernised,  and 
she  is  converted  practically  into  a  new  craft.  Boilers  and 
machinery  are  taken  out,  the  interior  is  demolished  and 
redesigned  to  provide  improved  or  increased  passenger 
accommodation.  When  the  Denton  Grange,  after  being 
exposed  to  the  elements  for  some  eight  months  on  the  shore 
at  Las  Palmas,  reached  Hebburn-on-Tyne,  she  was  rebuilt 
practically.  The  propelling  installation  was  removed  and 
overhauled,  and  the  double  bottom  was  renewed  entirely. 
When  the  Booth  liner  Ambrose,  after  being  refloated  from 
an  exposed  position  at  Para,  in  South  America,  reached 
the  same  yards,  the  opportunity  was  seized,  as  she  was 
being  rebottomed,  to  revise  the  whole  of  her  internal 
arrangements  and  upper  works.  When  rescued  she  had  a 
short  poop,  a  well  and  a  bridge-house.  The  poop  deck 
was  raised  bodily  to  the  level  of  the  midship  bridge-house, 
the  two  were  connected  by  plating,  and  the  well  was 
eliminated.  In  this  way,  together  with  other  structural 
alterations,  accommodation  was  found  on  the  vessel  for 
some  160  persons,  the  state-rooms  in  the  first-class  accom- 
modation were  made  more  commodious,  and  baths  and 
other  comforts  for  about  300  emigrants  were  introduced. 
As  a  result  the  owners  became  possessed  of  a  vessel 
rivalling  the  latest  creations  of  the  ship-designer  for  a 
comparatively  low  sum. 

A  large  percentage  of  the  cases  demanding  the  attention 
of  the  shipbuilding  surgeon  assumes  the  form  of  a  broken 
nose  or  twisted  stem.  The  sharp  knife-edge,  cutting  the 
water,  has  to  bear  the  brunt  of  the  force  arising  from  a 


3IO    STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST  OF   THE   WORLD 

collision,  whether  it  be  with  another  vessel,  rock,  a  break- 
water or  derelict.  The  Deutschland  missed  a  voyage  or 
two  by  becoming  too  familiar  with  the  pier-works  at 
Dover,  and  had  to  enter  the  repairing  wards  at  South- 
ampton. The  Finland  emulated  this  affectionate  embrace 
with  the  protective  works  at  the  same  port,  and  was  obliged 
to  go  to  the  Tyne,  with  the  lower  part  of  her  stem  battered 
in,  for  treatment.  A  Canadian  Pacific  liner  crashed  into  a 
collier,  sank  the  latter,  but  received  a  severe  injury  to  this 
part  of  her  hull,  and  when  she  returned  to  port  there  was 
not  only  the  gaping  wound  telling  the  story  of  the  accident, 
but  also  a  massive  chunk  of  metal,  weighing  some  fifty 
tons,  which  had  been  torn  from  the  unfortunate  antagonist, 
and  had  become  embedded  firmly  in  the  body  of  the 
aggressive  liner. 

Curiously  enough,  collisions  at  sea,  ninety-nine  times  out 
of  a  hundred,  are  productive  of  the  same  class  of  wounds 
inflicted  in  identical  places.  The  ramming  vessel  with- 
draws from  the  combat  with  a  badly  damaged  bow,  while 
the  stricken  ship  generally  is  caught  just  forward  of  the 
bridge.  Indeed,  this  appears  to  be  the  most  vulnerable 
part  of  a  boat.  If  the  casualties  from  collision  between  two 
vessels  are  examined,  this  point  will  receive  striking  con- 
firmation. The  Bywell  Castle  caught  the  Princess  Alice 
forward  of  the  engine-room,  sending  her  to  the  bottom  of 
the  Thames  with  760  souls ;  the  Vesta  struck  the  Arctic  near 
the  same  place ;  the  Cromartyshire  got  her  blow  well  home 
into  La  Bourgogne  near  the  bridge ;  and  the  Florida  drove 
into  the  Republique  amidships.  Another  remarkable  point 
is  that  a  vessel  so  wounded  invariably  goes  to  the  bottom 
within  a  short  time,  while  the  striking  vessel,  although  she 
may  be  crippled  at  the  bow,  is  able  almost  always  to  keep 
afloat  and  to  make  port  safely. 

The  most  amazing  effects  of  such  a  collision  were 
revealed  in  connection  with  the  Florida.  So  tremendous 
was  the  impact  that  thirty  feet  of  the  bow  of  this  liner  were 
doubled  up  into  a  space  of  five  feet.  The  bow  collapsed 
like   a  pair   of  bellows,   and   the   deck   drooped   over   the 


STEAMSHIP   SURGERY  311 

buckled  section.  In  this  case  the  collision  bulkhead  stood 
up  to  its  work  in  the  most  convincing  manner.  To  realise 
the  tremendous  force  that  caused  this  damage,  one  must 
remember  that  the  Florida  weighed  some  7000  tons  and 
was  travelling  at  fourteen  miles  an  hour.  The  Republique 
weighed  about  25,000  tons,  and  at  the  time  was  travelling 
at  a  somewhat  less  speed. 

The  repair  of  the  Florida  was  a  remarkable  achieve- 
ment. She  steamed  into  New  York,  and  was  laid  up  for 
several  weeks.  Her  owners  feared  that,  under  the  force 
of  the  impact,  the  whole  of  the  ship  had  been  strained, 
and  that  many  months  would  be  occupied  in  her  complete 
overhaul  and  repair.  Investigation,  however,  revealed 
the  remarkable  fact  that  the  force  of  the  collision  was 
localised  entirely  in  the  crumpled  bow.  Accordingly, 
tenders  were  called  for  the  replacement  of  the  damaged 
forepart,  and  the  Morse  Dry  Dock  and  Repair  Company 
of  Brooklyn  received  the  contract.  This  firm  undertook 
to  complete  the  task  for  the  sum  of  $39,500,  or  ;^7,900, 
and  to  have  the  vessel  ready  for  sea  within  24  days.  Time 
played  an  important  part  in  the  decision  in  favour  of  this 
hospital,  since  the  nearest  competitor  required  fifty  per 
cent,  more  time,  while  another  contractor  demanded  56 
days  for  the  work. 

The  vessel  was  handed  over  to  the  Brooklyn  surgeons, 
and  immediately  workmen,  armed  with  pneumatic  tools, 
swarmed  aboard  to  cut  away  the  damaged  section.  They 
commenced  with  the  deck,  and  selected  a  point  two  feet 
beyond  the  farthest  point  of  the  damage  for  the  severance. 
They  then  worked  down  the  sides  of  the  hull  to  the  water- 
line,  the  vessel  being  still  afloat.  While  this  work  was 
in  progress  the  steel  mills  were  busy  rolling  and  fashion- 
ing new  frames,  beams  and  plates,  while  a  new  stem  was 
being  cast.  The  repairers  set  aside  six  days  for  the  forma- 
tion of  this  last-named  piece,  but  it  was  delivered  to  them 
ready  for  setting  in  position  within  three  and  a  half  days  of 
the  giving  of  the  order.  Five  days  after  the  workmen  first 
stepped  aboard  the  Florida  the  liner  was  dry-docked,  stern 


312     STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST  OF   THE   WORLD 

first,  and  at  one  o'clock  mid-day,  after  the  removal  of 
the  water,  the  workmen  resumed  operations,  completing 
the  severance  from  water-line  level  to  the  bottom  of  the 
keel. 

While  this  task  was  proceeding,  heavy  lengths  of  chain 
were  secured  to  the  crumpled  bow,  and  a  floating  derrick, 
capable  of  lifting  300  tons,  was  brought  up  to  lean  over 
the  gate  of  the  dock.  Within  the  short  space  of  5J  hours 
the  workmen  had  completed  their  cutting  operations,  the 
derrick  grabbed  the  chains  secured  to  the  severed  portion, 
and  lifted  it  out  of  the  way  in  one  piece.  This  part 
weighed  about  100  tons,  and  as  old  iron  it  fetched  the  sum 
of  $75  or  £1$  ! 

The  Florida  was  now  floated  out  of  the  dry  dock,  turned 
round  and  re-dry-docked,  in  order  to  bring  the  bow  to  the 
opposite  or  inner  end  of  the  berth  near  the  workshops,  to 
facilitate  the  handling  of  the  new  material.  When  once  the 
new  stem  was  set  up  the  frames  were  placed  in  position 
quickly,  while  plating  proceeded  so  rapidly  that  thirteen 
days  after  the  crumpled  bow  was  removed  the  vessel  was 
afloat  once  more,  and  moored  alongside  the  wharf  to  enable 
the  finishing  touches  to  be  applied  to  the  interior.  This 
latter  task  was  finished  within  a  fortnight,  and  the  Florida 
was  returned  to  her  owners,  safe  and  sound,  ready  for 
instant  service,  within  the  twenty-four  days  contracted  for 
the  repair,  the  surgeons  winning  with  a  few  hours  to  spare. 
Of  course,  in  this  instance,  repair  operations  were  facili- 
tated very  appreciably  by  the  owners  being  able  to  secure 
the  drawings  and  particulars  of  the  integral  parts  of  the 
bow  within  the  damaged  section.  These  plans  set  out  in 
specific  detail  every  requirement.  It  was  merely  a  ques- 
tion of  organisation,  in  which  feature  this  particular  repair 
yard  stands  pre-eminent  among  American  shipbuilders. 
Everything  considered,  this  operation  compares  favourably 
with  similar  work  accomplished  in  British  yards. 

The  Tyne  and  North-East  Coast  shipbuilders  and 
repairers  have  achieved  a  unique  reputation  for  dispatch 
and  thoroughness  in  this  peculiar  phase  of  their  work,  and 


in  IINC;    THK    NEW    BOW    TO    THE    JiKM.lCK 
The  special  pontoon  on  which  it  was  floated,  and  the  ways  to  slide  it  into  position. 


/'hotos  by  ir.  Parry,  South  ShU'Ids] 

A    DISASTROIS    COLLISION 

The  British  J'riHce  was  so  damaged  that  Swan,  Hunter  and  Wigluun  Richardson  had  to  fit  a 
new  stem-bar,  all  frames  forward  of  the  jieak  bulkhead,  as  well  as  plates. 


STEAMSHIP    SURGERY  313 

some  of  the  cases  sent  for  treatment  have  been  of  a  most 
remarkable  character.  The  British  Prince,  when  she 
arrived  at  the  yards  of  the  Wallsend  SHpway  and  Engineer- 
ing Company,  presented  a  sorry  sight.  Her  bows  were 
bent  and  bruised  almost  out  of  recognition.  The  vessel 
was  taken  into  dry  dock,  and  the  whole  of  her  bow  below 
the  uppermost  strake,  or  line  of  plates,  was  removed  to 
allow  new  ribs,  beams  and  plates  to  be  introduced.  This 
was  a  more  striking  piece  of  work  than  the  repair  of  the 
Florida,  since  the  damage  was  felt  at  some  distance  from 
the  stem,  and  in  an  irregular  manner.  Practically  it  in- 
volved the  reconstruction  of  a  quarter  of  the  ship.  When 
a  damaged  section  can  be  cut  completely  away  the  task 
of  repair  is  simplified,  but  when  the  repairer  is  compelled 
to  renovate  the  damaged  parts,  involving  the  removal  of 
big  sections  which  extend  into  the  sound  portions  of  the 
hull,  and  that  with  the  minimum  of  further  damage,  the 
task  becomes  much  more  exacting.  The  situation  is 
analogous  to  that  of  a  surgeon  who  is  called  upon  to 
remove  a  bone  from  a  person's  arm  or  leg.  He  would 
rather  amputate  the  whole  limb  than  extract  the  damaged 
part. 

The  collier  Vauxhall  came  to  grief  in  the  Tyne.  She 
was  run  down,  and  foundered  just  inside  the  piers  at  the 
estuary,  in  a  position  where  she  was  exposed  to  the  action 
of  the  sea.  The  salvors,  Messrs.  Smith's  Dock  Company, 
Limited,  got  hold  of  her  by  passing  stout  steel  wire 
hawsers  beneath  her.  The  ends  of  these  were  secured  to 
lighters  on  either  side,  so  that  when  the  tide  rose  the  wreck 
was  lifted  in  her  sling,  and  borne  into  shallow  water.  Here 
she  was  patched  up  to  enable  her  to  be  taken  into  dry  dock, 
where,  after  the  water  was  pumped  out,  she  presented  a 
dismal  spectacle.  The  lower  part  of  her  bow  was  torn  open 
and  rent  in  the  most  fantastic  manner,  while  her  stem  was 
unrecognisable.  It  had  been  bent  round  and  inwards,  in 
the  most  extraordinary  manner  by  the  blow.  The  whole 
of  the  bow  had  to  be  cut  clean  away  and  reconstructed. 
It  was  a  ticklish  job,  but  when  the  marine  surgeons  had 


314     STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

completed  their  work  the  Vauxhall  steamed  away  sounder 
than  ever. 

There  is  one  remarkable  feature  which  cannot  fail  to 
impress  one  in  connection  with  these  head-on  smashes. 
This  is  the  localisation  of  the  effects  of  the  blow.  When 
a  vessel  blunders  into  an  obstruction  at  full  speed,  naturally- 
one  would  imagine  that  the  force  of  the  impact  would  be 
experienced  from  stem  to  stern.  But  it  is  not  so.  The 
forepart  acts  as  a  kind  of  cushion,  or  spring  buffer.  It 
crumples  up  readily  enough,  but  it  absorbs  the  whole  of  the 
impact,  so  that  the  engine-room  and  other  parts  do  not 
show  the  slightest  ill-effects.  This  is  readily  explained. 
The  vessel  is  built  up  of  a  million  parts,  so  that  when  one 
end  is  struck  with  tremendous  force,  the  blow  in  its  trans- 
mission becomes  diminished,  and  a  smash  at  the  bow 
is  never  felt  at  the  stern.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  vessel 
were  a  solid  mass,  i.  e.  were  formed  of  one  piece  from 
end  to  end,  the  blow  would  be  felt  throughout.  The  vast 
number  of  small  pieces  secures  a  pronounced  elasticity 
which  ensures  the  whole  effect  of  the  most  staggering  shock 
being  absorbed  within  a  short  distance  of  the  point  of 
impact. 

In  some  instances  the  ship  repairer  will  buy  up  what 
is  regarded  as  a  useless  hulk,  overhaul  and  repair  it,  in 
the  hope  that  upon  completion  a  purchaser  will  be  found 
at  a  price  which  will  recompense  the  surgeon  for  his  work. 
The  Trevilley  was  a  good  illustration  of  this  form  of  specu- 
lation. She  came  into  collision  in  the  Scheldt  and  a  huge 
rent  was  torn  in  her  side.  She  foundered,  and  when  she 
was  examined,  the  underwriters,  owing  to  the  extent  of  the 
damage  inflicted,  concluded  that  it  would  be  cheaper  to 
write  her  off  as  a  total  loss  than  to  incur  the  expense  of 
repair.  However,  a  firm  bought  up  the  dishevelled  mass 
of  steel,  got  it  afloat  and  into  dry  dock.  Here  the  ship 
was  reconstructed  practically  from  end  to  end,  and  within 
the  incredibly  short  time  of  twenty-eight  days  she  was  out 
once  more  receiving  her  final  touches,  and  awaiting  the 
survey  for  the  highest  classification  to  enter  the  service  of 


STEAMSHIP    SURGERY  315 

a  firm  who  had  bought  her.  In  another  case  this  same 
firm  secured  another  ship,  which  had  run  ashore  in  an 
almost  inextricable  position,  and  had  been  written  off 
as  a  total  loss  by  the  underwriters  as  they  considered 
her  more  fit  for  the  ship-breakers  than  the  ship-repairers. 
This  particular  firm  entertained  a  different  opinion.  They 
pulled  her  off  the  shore  and  took  her  into  hospital.  A 
huge  sum  was  expended  upon  her  renovation  from  end  to 
end,  as  she  had  suffered  badly  from  the  breaking  seas. 
She  came  out  of  dock,  gained  the  highest  classification 
certificate,  and  instantly  found  a  new  owner,  the  repairers 
netting  a  comfortable  profit  over  the  transaction. 

The  ship  repairer  has  come  to  be  regarded  as  indispens- 
able in  marine  circles.  There  are  many  enterprising  firms 
who  have  become  specialists  in  this  branch  of  marine 
engineering,  and  the  practice  is  lucrative.  Now-a-days  a 
ship  has  to  be  in  a  very  bad  way  indeed  before  she  is 
allowed  to  be  pounded  to  pieces  by  the  waves  on  a  pitiless 
coast,  or  left  to  dissolve  in  rust.  The  salvage  engineer 
will  get  the  cripple  afloat,  and  the  marine  surgeon  will 
restore  her  form  and  shape,  even  when,  as  already 
described,  the  outlook  is  most  dismal,  and  the  vessel  seems 
more  suited  for  destruction  than  rejuvenation 


CHAPTER    XXIII 


STEAMLESS    SHIPS 


The  latest  development  in  marine  engineering  circles, 
which  has  aroused  the  greatest  interest,  and  has  not  failed 
to  make  its  impression  upon  the  public,  is  the  steamless 
ship.  This  means  no  more  than  a  bold  bid  to  supersede 
steam  as  a  means  of  generating  power  for  the  propulsion 
of  a  vessel.  This  development  is  inevitable.  The  remark- 
able achievements  of  the  internal  combustion  motor  in 
various  other  fields  of  human  activity  led  to  the  suggestion 
that,  in  some  form  or  other,  it  might  be  rendered  suitable 
for  the  propulsion  of  large  ships,  and  experiments  to  this 
end  accordingly  were  made. 

The  idea  of  superseding  steam  is  not  new  by  any  means 
— the  perfection  of  the  petrol  engine  merely  revived  the 
idea,  and  enabled  theoretical  discussion  to  be  resolved  into 
practice.  The  high-speed  petrol  engine,  so  familiar  to  one 
and  all,  is  not  being  employed,  as  it  is  unsuited  to  the 
purpose ;  its  bigger  and  more  cumbersome  slow-speed 
brother  is  the  type  which  has  been  selected.  One  engineer, 
Dr.  Diesel,  has  devoted  practically  the  whole  of  his  life 
to  the  solution  of  this  problem,  and  his  efforts  appear  to 
be  within  reach  of  success,  if  not  for  the  largest  classes 
of  boats,  at  least  for  certain  descriptions  of  the  type 
generically  designated  as  tramps  and  freighters. 

The  engine,  in  its  most  approved  form,  works  upon  the 
four  or  two  cycle,  although  the  latter  is  becoming  the 
more  popular.  The  motor  differs  from  the  automobile 
engine  in  a  variety  of  ways,  although  following  its  basic 
principles  and  characteristics.  There  is  no  need  to 
vaporise  the  oil  fuel,  while  electrical  and  other  forms  of 
ignition    are    dispensed    with.      It    works    upon    what    is 

316 


STEAMLESS    SHIPS  317 

known  as  a  constant  pressure  method.  On  the  suction 
stroke,  air  is  admitted  into  the  cylinder,  and  on  the  upstroke 
of  the  piston  this  air  is  compressed  to  an  extreme  degree — 
about  500  pounds  per  square  inch.  This  compression  of 
the  air  raises  its  temperature  to  about  1000°  Fahrenheit. 
When  the  piston  has  ascended  to  its  limit,  and  the 
degree  of  maximum  compression  is  obtained,  a  certain 
quantity  of  oil  is  blown  into  the  cylinder,  in  the  form  of  a 
spray,  by  compressed  air,  the  force  of  this  jet  being  in 
excess  of  the  pressure  prevailing  within  the  cylinder.  The 
temperature  which  the  compressed  air  has  reached  within 
the  cylinder  is  sufficient  to  ignite  the  incoming  oil,  causing 
it  to  expand,  and  thereby  to  drive  down  the  piston.  There 
is  no  explosion  as  with  the  petrol  motor,  so  there  is  no 
violent  shock  as  the  fuel  ignites.  Rather,  the  expansion 
takes  place  quietly  and  evenly,  the  action  being  somewhat 
similar  to  that  produced  in  a  hot-air  engine.  After  the 
charge  has  been  ignited  and  the  piston  has  descended,  the 
products  of  combustion  are  swept  through  an  exhaust  port 
which  is  uncovered  by  the  descending  piston,  so  that  when 
the  latter  re-ascends  the  air  admitted  into  the  cylinder  is 
quite  pure  and  free  from  impregnation  with  gases  from  the 
previous  charge. 

The  Diesel  engine  has  been  in  operation  for  many  years 
in  connection  with  land  stations,  and  for  this  class  of  work 
has  been  brought  to  a  high  standard  of  efficiency  and 
reliability  by  British  engineers  who  have  exploited  the 
invention.  Consequently,  when  it  was  decided  to  adapt 
the  system  to  marine  operations,  the  projectors  of  the  idea 
had  valuable  experience  to  guide  them.  The  advantage 
of  the  Diesel  engine  is  that  it  will  operate  with  practically 
any  description  of  liquid  fuel  of  the  crudest  character. 

When  the  oil  motor  of  this  type  was  first  taken  in  hand 
for  marine  purposes,  it  was  installed  rather  as  an  auxiliary 
engine  upon  sailing  vessels.  Dr.  Nansen's  old  exploration 
ship  Fram,  when  acquired  by  Amundsen  for  his  dash  to 
the  South  Pole,  was  fitted  with  a  motor  developing  180 
horse-power,  and  several  other  vessels  have  been  equipped 


3i8    STEAMSHIP  CONQUEST  OF  THE   WORLD 

in  a  similar  manner.  The  experience  with  these  boats 
confirmed  the  investigators  of  the  suitabiHty  of  the  Diesel 
engine  for  propulsion,  and  accordingly  the  motor  was 
adopted  on  certain  vessels  instead  of  steam  engines. 

At  the  moment  a  variety  of  boats  have  made  their  appear- 
ance on  the  seven  seas  driven  upon  this  system.  British 
marine  engineers  were  not  attracted  by  the  innovation,  and 
regarded  the  development  with  characteristic  misgivings. 
The  British  shipbuilding  industry  has  not  been  alone  in 
its  lack  of  enthusiasm.  The  Americans,  who  are  generally 
regarded  as  the  most  enterprising  nation  in  the  world,  have 
been  equally  backward,  and  for  the  same  reason — they 
are  not  convinced.  The  steam-engine  has  been  brought 
to  a  high  standard  of  perfection,  and  the  dictates  of 
prudence  favour  a  policy  of  "make  haste  slowly." 

The  development  was  fostered  for  the  most  part  by  those 
countries  whose  resources  of  coal  are  very  slender,  but 
who,  on  the  other  hand,  have  an  abundance  of  oil.  More- 
over, the  idea  was  taken  up  most  vigorously  by  the  firms 
engaged  in  the  exploitation  of  the  oil  deposits,  as  they 
were  presented  with  a  means  of  being  entirely  independent 
of  outside  sources.  The  oil-motor  coincided  with  their 
requirements ;  they  could  obtain  fuel  in  unlimited  quanti- 
ties for  this  purpose  for  next  to  nothing,  instead  of  having 
to  pay  prohibitive  prices  for  imported  coal. 

Great  activity  is  being  displayed  among  continental 
shipbuilders  and  marine  engineers  in  the  construction  of 
engines  of  this  class  for  marine  work.  Motors  up  to  5000 
horse-power  and  more  have  been  designed  and  are  under 
erection  for  large  ships.  The  oil  magnates  of  Europe  have 
extensive  fleets  of  oil-driven  ships  in  operation,  varying 
from  300  horse-power  upwards,  and  trading  for  the  most 
part  upon  the  inland  waterways  and  rivers  of  Europe  and 
Asia. 

Modified  forms  of  the  Diesel  oil-engine  are  being  placed 
upon  the  world's  markets  by  different  manufacturers. 
Fundamentally  they  are  all  the  same,  but  there  are  wide 
divergences    in    detail,    which  have  been    conceived    and 


Till-;    STAKTINC;    PLATI\1K.M    IN    TH1-;    EXCUN  K- ROOM 

."■liowiiig  tek-graphs  aiul  maiiiuuvring  wliecl. 


TIIK    niNINc;    SALOON 

'rhc  fc-aturc  of  this  a])artiiit;nt  i-  its  lieiglit. 

THE    MOTOR-SHIP    SFJ.ANDIA 


STEAMLESS    SHIPS  319 

elaborated  by  the  individual  firms  who  have  taken  up  the 
idea  and  are  engaged  in  its  development.  Thus  we  have 
the  Vickers-Diesel,  the  Carels-Diesel,  the  Polar-Diesel,  and 
so  on  without  end. 

Shipping  and  public  attention  became  attracted  to  this 
new  order  of  things  by  the  construction  of  the  twin  ships 
Selandia  and  Jutlandia.  The  first-named  was  built  at 
Copenhagen  by  the  eminent  firm  of  Burmeister  and  Wain, 
while  the  second  came  from  the  Clyde  yards  of  Messrs. 
Barclay  Curie  &  Company,  who  have  adopted  the  type  of 
Diesel  motor  perfected  by  the  foregoing  Danish  engineers. 
These  two  vessels,  in  their  main  features,  are  exactly  alike, 
so  that  a  description  of  one  applies  to  the  other.  The 
length  is  384  feet,  beam  53  feet,  moulded  depth  30  feet, 
and  the  displacement  10,550  tons.  There  are  two  motors, 
each  developing  about  1,250  horse-power  at  140  revolutions 
per  minute,  giving  a  total  output  of  2,500  horse-power, 
which  is  sufficient  to  yield  a  speed  of  12  knots — nearly  14 
miles — per  hour.  In  this  type  the  four-cycle  system  is 
adopted,  the  working  being  exactly  the  same  as  in  the 
petrol  motor,  the  four  strokes  comprising  a  cycle  being 
suction,  compression,  firing  and  exhaust  respectively.  It 
may  be  pointed  out  that  the  main  difference  between  the 
two-  and  four-cycles  is  that  in  the  former  instance  a  power- 
stroke  is  obtained  for  every  revolution  of  the  crankshaft, 
while  in  the  second  the  power-stroke  of  the  piston  is 
developed  once  in  two  revolutions. 

The  maiden  voyage  of  the  Selandia  to  Bangkok  and 
back  was  a  complete  triumph  for  the  motor-ship.  She 
covered  altogether  21,840  miles,  experiencing"  all  kinds  of 
weather,  and  thus  a  good  opportunity  was  secured  for  test- 
ing the  practical  qualities  and  reliability  of  the  machinery 
under  all  and  varying  conditions.  What  might  be  termed 
the  vulnerable  parts  of  a  motor — the  piston  rings  and 
valves — were  found  to  be  in  perfect  condition  when 
examined  from  time  to  time  on  the  journey,  while  the 
cylinders  were  discovered  to  be  quite  clean.  The  journey 
proved  conclusively  that  a  ship  of  this  type  can  carry  9,300 


320    STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST  OF  THE   WORLD 

tons  of  cargo  over  a  distance  of  21,840  miles  on  a  con- 
sumption of  9  tons  of  fuel  per  24  hours. 

There  is  one  outstanding  advantage  incidental  to  the 
motor-ship.  This  is  the  reduction  in  the  staff  requisite  to 
keep  the  machinery  going.  On  this  particular  trip  the 
engine-room  crew  consisted  of  10  men  and  3  boys.  The 
whole  of  the  stokehold  crew  is  eliminated,  which  in  the 
case  of  a  modern  liner  is  a  formidable  factor,  representing 
as  it  does,  in  the  case  of  an  Atlantic  greyhound,  about  350 
men.  In  the  case  of  the  above  motor-vessels,  the  respective 
advantages,  as  compared  with  a  steam-ship  similar  in 
every  particular,  are  set  out  as  follows — 

VESSEL   ENGINED   WITH    DIESEL   MOTORS 

Fuel  capacity,  oil  (sufficient  for  28,800  nautical 

miles) 1,000  tons. 

Cargo  deadweight  (for  6,850  nautical  miles)    .  7,105  tons. 

Cargo  capacity 351,000  cubic  feet. 

Oil  consumption       ......  10  tons  per  day. 

Engine-room  staff  (4  engineers  and  4  assis- 
tants)        .......  8  men. 

Cost  of  fuel  [oil  at  40s.  ($10)  per  ton].  ;^6oo  ($3,000)  per  month. 

Wages  for  engineers'  staff       ....        — 

Catering  for  engineers'  staff    .        .        .        ,  £24.  ($120)  per  month. 

SAME   VESSEL   ENGINED   WITH    STEAM   ENGINES 

Fuel     capacity,    coal     (sufficient     for    6,850 

nautical  miles) 1,000  tons. 

Cargo  deadweight  (for  6,850  miles)         .        .  6,210  tons. 

Cargo  capacity 304,000  cubic  feet. 

Coal  consumption 42  tons  per  day. 

Engine-room  staff  (4  engineers  and  12  firemen)  16  men. 

Cost  of  fuel  [coal  at  14^.  ($3"5o)  per  ton]         ,  ^882  ($4,410)  per  month. 

Wages  for  engineers' staff        ....  ^114  ($570)      „        „ 

Catering  for  engineers' staff    ....  ^39  ($195)        „        „ 

Comparison  of  the  above  shows  a  pronounced  economy 
in  favour  of  the  Diesel  engines,  and  one  may  marvel  at 
the  hesitation  of  the  shipowning  community  with  regard 
to  the  adoption  of  the  internal  combustion  engine  for 
propulsion  purposes. 

Unfortunately  for  the  enthusiastic  advocates  of  the 
motor-liner,  the  shipowner  is  somewhat  longsighted.  At 
the  moment  crude  oil  is  comparatively  cheap,  although  it 


STEAMLESS    SHIPS  321 

is  rising  steadily  in  price.  As  the  movement  develops  the 
cost  of  this  commodity  is  certain  to  rise  in  accordance  with 
the  laws  of  supply  and  demand.  This  statement  at  the 
present  moment  is  ridiculed,  but  it  is  supported  only  too 
strongly  by  experience  in  other  fields — the  motor  industry, 
for  instance.  Twenty  years  ago  the  oil-refineries  concen- 
trated their  energies  upon  the  production  of  paraffin.  The 
petrol  which  was  obtained,  being  marketless,  was  burned 
or  thrown  away.  Paraffin  was  produced  in  prodigious 
quantities  mainly  to  meet  the  demands  of  illumination,  but 
the  introduction  of  the  incandescent  gas-mantle  developed 
a  system  of  petrol-gas  lighting,  while  motor-cars  demanded 
spirit  for  their  engines.  Accordingly  the  refiners,  seeing 
the  vanishing  market  for  paraffin,  devoted  their  energies 
to  the  production  of  petrol.  Paraffin  became  the  waste 
product,  and  for  a  time  was  practically  valueless,  while 
even  to-day  it  may  be  obtained  at  a  very  low  price.  The 
shipowner  does  not  appreciate  the  situation  of  being  at  the 
tender  mercies  of  trusts,  such  as  virtually  control  the 
world's  supplies  of  oil,  and  which,  although  apparently  at 
variance,  yet  have  a  protective  community  of  interests  with 
well-defined  spheres  of  individual  activity. 

On  the  other  hand,  coal  cannot  be  cornered,  and  its 
price,  under  normal  conditions,  is  not  subject  to  wild 
fluctuations;  but  the  market  value  of  oil  is  as  sensitive  as 
the  mercury  in  a  thermometer,  and  in  the  above  table  of 
comparisons  is  quoted  at  almost  its  lowest  figure.  A 
twenty-five  per  cent,  increase  in  the  above  price,  which  is 
quite  feasible,  would  bring  the  cost  of  oil  perilously  near 
that  of  coal  consumption  per  month. 

There  is  another  factor  which  is  responsible,  in  a  pro- 
nounced degree,  for  the  British  attitude  towards  the  oil- 
engine. This  is  the  perfection  of  the  system  for  firing 
steam-boilers  with  liquid  fuel  instead  of  coal.  The  possi- 
bilities of  this  method  were  driven  home  very  forcibly  by 
the  noteworthy  voyage  of  the  steamer  Goldmouth,  which, 
with  oil  fuel,  steamed  from  Singapore,  by  the  long  route 
via.  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  to  Rotterdam,  a  distance  of 

Y 


322     STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST  OF  THE   WORLD 

11,791  miles  in  52  days.  The  engines  were  not  stopped 
once  during  this  journey,  which  ranks  as  one  of  the 
longest  "non-stop"  runs  ever  made  by  marine  machinery. 
The  consumption  of  oil  was  so  low  that,  upon  reaching  the 
Dutch  port,  sufficient  fuel  still  remained  in  the  bunkers  to 
carry  the  vessel  nearly  half-way  back  to  the  East. 

By  this  method  of  raising  steam  practically  all  the 
virtues  incidental  to  the  motor-ship,  pure  and  simple, 
are  obtained.  It  is  maintained  in  some  quarters,  by  those 
who  are  familiar  with  both  oil-  and  coal-fired  systems,  that 
the  motor-ship  cannot  excel  the  oil-fired  steamship  either 
from  the  view  of  economy,  reliability,  efficiency  or  cargo- 
carrying  capacity.  The  oil  in  this  instance  may  be  stowed 
on  board  in  precisely  the  same  manner  as  obtains  with  the 
motor-ship,  thereby  leaving  increased  space  for  cargo, 
while  the  engineering  staff  is  reduced,  so  that  sister  ships 
propelled  by  the  two  systems  are  placed  on  all-fours  in 
regard  to  the  most  important  features.  The  shipowner 
who  favours  oil-fuel  for  raising  steam  has  also  another 
advantage.  If  he  puts  into  a  port  for  fuel  he  can  take 
coal  or  oil,  as  the  furnaces  are  adapted  for  burning  either. 

At  the  same  time,  the  possibilities  of  the  steamless  ship 
must  not  be  overlooked.  So  far  as  the  general  mercantile 
marine  is  concerned  the  Fionia,  a  sister  ship  of  the  Selandia 
and  also  built  at  Copenhagen,  was  purchased  upon 
completion  by  the  Hamburg-American  line  and  re- 
christened  Christian  X  in  honour  of  the  King  of  Denmark, 
for  its  Mexican  trade.  This  line  is  adopting  the  system 
upon  a  liberal  scale  for  its  minor  traffic,  while  another 
German  company,  the  Woerman  Line,  is  also  embrac- 
ing the  idea.  No  sensational,  ambitious  efforts  so  far  are 
contemplated,  and  the  day  when  the  Atlantic  greyhounds 
will  travel  to  and  fro  under  motor  propulsion  still  seems 
somewhat  remote.  It  is  certainly  a  big  jump  from  1,750 
to  45,000  horse-power,  which  will  be  necessary  to  con- 
summate this  end.  Undoubtedly  the  day  of  25-knot  motor 
flyers  will  dawn,  but  there  are  so  many  difficult  problems 
to   be   solved,    coupled   Vvith   the   shipowner's   deep-rooted 


STEAMLESS   SHIPS  323 

prejudice  to  novelty  to  overcome,  that  it  will  require  a 
heavy  subsidy  on  the  part  of  an  energetic  Government  to 
enable  the  experiment  to  be  fulfilled. 

The  motor,  pure  and  simple,  however,  is  not  without 
a  rival  for  priority.  A  group  of  marine  engineers  are 
disposed  towards  the  marine  gas-engine,  in  which  virtually 
a  complete  gas  generating  plant  is  installed  upon  the 
vessel.  The  Germans  have  displayed  distinct  initiative 
in  this  direction  with  small  craft  devised  for  river  and  canal 
work,  and  some  years  ago  the  British  Government  carried 
out  a  series  of  determined  investigations.  Many  of  the 
foremost  marine  engineers  of  the  world  have  expressed  the 
opinion  that  this  is  the  true  rival  to  steam,  but  there  was  a 
lack  of  enterprise  to  prove  or  disprove  the  feasibility  of  the 
idea,  so  far  as  sea-going  work  was  concerned.  However, 
a  small  syndicate  was  formed  by  Mr.  Holzapfel  of  New- 
castle-on-Tyne  to  build  and  operate  a  small  vessel  driven 
by  this  type  of  power-generator.  These  experiments  were 
prompted  by  the  remarkable  success  of  the  plant  at  the 
Newcastle  works  of  Holzapfels  Limited,  where  gas-power 
is  generated  at  the  cost  of  fib.  of  bituminous  coal  per 
indicated  horse-power  per  hour. 

The  greatest  difficulty  experienced  in  this  experiment 
was  in  connection  with  reversing,  manoeuvring  and  other 
operations,  for  which  the  gas-engine  is  not  adapted.  A 
German  inventor.  Professor  Fottinger,  meantime  had 
devised  what  is  known  as  a  hydraulic  transformer,  and  this 
was  adopted.  This  device  acts  as  an  intermediary  between 
the  gas-engine  and  the  propeller-shaft,  so  that  the  number 
of  revolutions  per  minute  of  the  latter  may  be  reduced 
(within  certain  limits),  or  it  may  be  stopped  and  reversed, 
while  the  gas-engine  is  running  at  full  speed  ahead.  The 
action  is  almost  instantaneous,  and  the  loss  of  power 
arising  from  its  introduction  is  very  small. 

Having  overcome  the  most  perplexing  problem,  a  gas- 
ship  was  built  at  South  Shields.  It  measures  120  feet  in 
length,  by  22  feet  beam,  and  ii}  feet  moulded  depth,  and  is 
designed  to  carry  a  cargo  of  300  tons  on  a  draught  ot  ten 
Y  2 


324    STEAMSHIP  CONQUEST  OF  THE   WORLD 

feet.  The  adaptation  of  the  vessel  to  the  new  conditions 
was  no  easy  matter,  but  the  co-operation  of  the  builders, 
J.  T.  Eltringham  &  Company,  enabled  these  to  be  sur- 
mounted satisfactorily.  The  gas  plant  is  placed  aft,  in  the 
space  normally  occupied  by  engines  and  boilers,  and  it 
comprises  two  gas  generators,  each  of  loo  horse-power, 
with  two  vaporisers  and  scrubbers  for  cleaning  the  gas. 
Special  arrangements  are  provided  to  secure  gas-tightness 
of  the  space  housing  the  plant.  The  two  producers  each 
measure  3 J  feet  square,  while  the  scrubbers  are  13  feet 
high,  by  2^  feet  diameter.  The  most  careful  precautions 
have  been  adopted  to  eliminate  entirely  the  danger  of 
explosion.  The  gas-engines  have  six  cylinders  with  a 
bore  of  lof  inches  and  a  stroke  of  10  inches,  and  develop 
180  horse-power.  They  are  designed  to  run  at  450  revolu- 
tions per  minute,  which  is  reduced  to  120  revolutions 
on  the  propeller-shaft  through  the  intermediary  of  the 
transformer. 

The  vessel,  from  her  practical  operations,  certainly  ful- 
fills the  hopes  of  her  creators.  She  plies  in  the  coasting 
trade,  and  handles  loads  ranging  from  240  to  340  tons. 
The  fuel  consumption  has  averaged  between  2,800  and 
3,696  pounds  of  coal  per  twenty-four  hours — about  half 
that  required  for  steam-engines  in  a  vessel  of  similar  size. 

Electric  propulsion,  also,  is  making  a  powerful  bid  for 
popularity.  Several  electrical  systems  have  been  elabor- 
ated, but  none  have  been  subjected  to  the  stern  test  of  com- 
mercial application.  The  most  promising  results  have 
been  obtained  with  the  system  developed  by  Messrs.  Mavor 
and  Coulson  of  Glasgow.  They  acquired  a  small  vessel 
50  feet  in  length  between  perpendiculars,  by  12  feet  beam, 
7  feet  4  inches  moulded  depth,  and  a  maximum  draft  of 
4J  feet,  certified  by  the  Board  of  Trade  to  carry  50 
passengers.  The  propelling  equipment  of  the  Electric 
Arc,  as  she  is  called,  comprises  a  45  brake-horse-power 
Wolseley  petrol-motor  which  drives  an  alternating  current 
dynamo  with  its  exciter,  and  the  propeller  is  coupled  to 
an  alternating  current  motor.     The  switch-gear  controlling 


STEAMLESS   SHIPS  325 

the  machinery  is  in  dupHcate,  and  may  be  operated  either 
from  the  bridge  or  the  engine-room.  The  electrical  equip- 
ment is  of  special  design,  of  the  simplest  character  and 
control.  The  little  vessel  has  been  able  to  attain  a  speed 
of  7I  knots  per  hour  with  about  25  brake-horse-power 
delivered  to  the  propeller-shaft.  The  manoeuvring  pro- 
perties of  the  system  have  been  proved  to  be  highly  satis- 
factory, and  the  most  extreme  movements  of  the  switch- 
control,  corresponding  to  the  various  movements  of  the 
rudder,  can  be  efTected  instantaneously  without  adversely 
affecting  the  electric  installation,  the  changes  being  made 
while  the  circuit  is  quite  dead.  This  vessel  is  still  being 
used  for  the  purposes  of  experiments,  and  developments 
will  be  followed  with  keen  interest  by  those  concerned  with 
marine  engineering. 

In  Germany  the  propulsion  of  barges  and  river  craft  by 
electricity  has  been  in  vogue  for  many  years  past.  One 
of  the  most  novel  vessels  is  the  Slimmer  Night's  Dream,, 
practically  a  house-boat,  or  craft  for  touring  the  lakes  and 
rivers,  with  well-appointed  passenger  accommodation. 
The  vessel  measures  131  feet  in  length,  by  15  feet  beam, 
and  draws  30  inches  of  water.  The  propeller  runs  at  about 
100  revolutions  per  minute,  being  driven  by  an  electric 
motor,  which  derives  its  current  from  a  battery  of  accumu- 
lators. The  latter,  in  turn,  are  charged  off  a  dynamo 
coupled  to  a  petrol  motor,  this  operation  being  carried  out, 
for  the  most  part,  during  those  periods  when  the  boat  is 
stationary. 

It  will  be  recognised  that  determined  efforts  are  being 
made  to  depose  steam  from  the  position  which  it  has  held 
for  a  century,  as  a  means  of  propelling  ships.  Whether 
this  tried  and  reliable  friend  will  be  superseded  by  any  of 
its  rivals,  time  alone  can  prove,  but  the  fact  that  marked 
activity  and  ingenuity  are  being  displayed  to  accom- 
plish this  end  affords  ample  evidence  that  shipbuilders 
and  marine  engineers  are  maintaining  a  vigilant  eye  on 
the  future.  Seeing  that  electricity  is  effecting  such  com- 
plete  revolutions   in    all    the   varied   fields   of   human    en- 


.326    STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

deavour,  it  would  not  be  surprising  if  this  agency  at  last 
proved  the  conqueror,  more  particularly  in  view  of  the 
fact  that  the  resolution  of  all  forms  of  energy,  latent  and 
active,  into  this  one  class  of  power  is  being  pursued  so 
actively,  and  for  the  most  part  successfully  and  economically. 


CHAPTER  XXIV 

WHY   GERMANY    BUILDS    HER   OWN    LINERS 

One  of  the  most  fascinating  and  at  the  same  time  one 
of  the  most  interesting  chapters  in  the  history  of  the 
mercantile  marine  is  the  story  of  how  Germany  came  to 
build  her  own  vessels  for  trans-oceanic  service.  The 
American  Civil  War  dealt  a  heavy  blow  to  the  United 
States  shipbuilding  industry,  from  which  the  country  has 
never  recovered.  Great  Britain  benefited  from  that  crisis, 
and  secured  supremacy  on  the  seven  seas.  By  keeping 
pace  with  progress  the  cost  of  construction  in  these  islands 
was  reduced  more  and  more,  until  at  last  it  became 
impossible  for  other  countries  to  produce  their  own  vessels 
at  anything  approaching  a  competitive  price.  Moreover, 
the  art  of  shipbuilding  was  far  more  advanced  in  this 
country  than  abroad,  owing  to  the  enterprise  of  our  marine 
engineers  and  the  initiative  of  those  who  were  responsible 
for  the  direction  of  our  yards.  The  result  was,  that  up  to 
the  year  1884  all  the  vessels  engaged  in  the  passenger  and 
mail  service  upon  the  seven  seas  hailed  either  from  the 
Tyne,  Clyde  or  from  Belfast :  the  magnificent  boats  of 
those  days  which  flew  the  flags  of  the  Hamburg-American, 
Norddeutscher  Lloyd  and  the  French  Compagnie  G^n^rale 
Transatlantique  v.ere  all  British  products. 

Although  the  British  shipbuilding  position  was  unassail- 
able, naturally  the  German  nation  chafed  under  the  yoke. 
As  the  Teuton  merchant  marine  commenced  to  grow,  a 
stern  resolve  was  made  to  become  independent  of  the 
British  marine  engineer.  The  first  move  came  about  in 
1874,  when  the  German  Government  sought  to  stimulate 
native  activity  by  giving  out  the  contracts  for  naval  vessels 
to  private  yards  in  the  country,  thereby  compelling  them 

327 


328    STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST  OF  THE   WORLD 

to  enlarge  their  premises,  to  scrap  existing  and  effete  plant, 
to  encourage  the  training  of  their  younger  employees,  and 
to  become  established  as  a  spirited  rival  to  Great  Britain 
in  this  ramification  of  industry. 

Naval  orders,  however,  owing  to  their  restricted  extent, 
could  not  keep  the  yards  going.  The  heavy  expenditure 
involved  in  modernisation  demanded  more  business  than 
the  Government  could  hope  to  guarantee.  Moreover, 
the  native  resources  were  in  an  undeveloped  state,  and 
it  was  far  cheaper  to  purchase  the  raw  material  from 
Great  Britain  in  order  to  set  the  German  shipbuilding 
industry  on  its  feet.  Even  then  the  cost  of  a  ship  was 
greatly  in  excess  of  the  sum  for  which  it  could  be  obtained 
in  Great  Britain.  But  turning  the  German  shipyards 
merely  into  erecting  shops  was  not  what  the  country 
required.  It  demanded  that  German  ships  should  be  built 
in  German  yards  of  German  materials.  By  this  means  a 
wide  range  of  industries  would  be  affected,  and  receive  the 
requisite  impetus  to  carry  them  to  prosperity. 

The  Hamburg-American  Line  led  the  way  in  what  was 
in  reality  a  risky  experiment.  In  1882  the  orders  for  two 
new  liners  were  handed,  not  to  British  yards,  but  to  two 
German  shipbuilding  organisations.  This  development 
was  followed  with  intense  interest.  Would  the  enterprise 
meet  with  success?  At  this  juncture  German  construction 
received  still  greater  support.  The  Norddeutscher  Lloyd 
Company  received  the  Imperial  Mail  Contract  for  an  East 
Asian  line,  which  the  Government  subsidised  very  heavily 
in  a  determined  effort  to  establish  the  German  shipping 
flag  in  the  East.  Accordingly,  the  successful  company 
reciprocated  by  placing  the  contracts  for  five  vessels  with 
native  yards.  In  this  manner  the  foundations  of  the 
German  shipbuilding  industry  were  laid,  and  from  that 
day  the  latter  company  at  least  has  never  departed  from 
the  practice  of  building  its  ships  at  home. 

Even  then  it  is  doubtful  whether  this  bold  start  would 
have  achieved  the  desired  end,  had  it  not  been  for  the 
astute  moves  of  Dr.  Wiegand  when  he  assumed  control  of 


r4l 


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H    ^ 


H      2 


T3  j: 


S     S 


WHY    GERMANY    BUILDS    HER    LINERS    329 

the  Norddeutscher  Lloyd  Company's  destinies.  The  sub- 
sidised mail  line  was  effective  so  far  as  it  went,  but  it 
recalled  to  mind  the  efforts  of  the  United  States  to  gain 
control  of  the  Atlantic  with  the  Collins  Line,  by  "smashing 
the  Cunard  windows  with  sovereigns."  The  German  sub- 
sidised line  was  a  failure,  and  had  British  companies 
trading  in  the  East  displayed  a  little  initiative  they  might 
have  kept  the  German  flag  out,  or  at  any  rate  minimised 
its  influences  very  materially.  Dr.  Wiegand  visited 
Chinese  waters  and  realised  the  hopelessness  of  his 
position,  since  the  whole  of  the  trade  was  in  British  hands, 
carried  on  by  local  coasting  lines  with  a  very  powerful 
connection  and  influence.  The  director  saw  that  com- 
petition was  worse  than  useless,  so  he  adopted  the  other 
alternative.  He  bought  out  the  companies  in  possession, 
and  by  one  stroke  consummated  German  ambitions  for 
the  time  being,  as  the  purchase  of  the  British  fleet  im- 
proved the  German  position  from  one  insignificant  boat  to 
a  fleet  of  26  steamers  aggregating  35,145  registered  tons. 
Having  secured  a  firm  foothold,  he  followed  up  this  success 
by  placing  orders  with  German  yards  for  9  steamers  of 
about  14,000  tons,  purchased  a  number  of  vessels  from  other 
quarters,  and  for  a  time  the  German  flag  was  practically 
paramount  in  the  East.  One  cannot  refrain  from  wonder- 
ing what  British  lines  trading  to  those  seas  were  doing  at 
this  period  to  permit  a  rival  to  secure  such  a  foothold. 
Certainly  they  failed  to  display  any  enterprise,  being  con- 
tent to  repose  in  a  false  haven  of  security  and  to  despise 
their  rising  rivals. 

The  Hamburg-American  Line  was  equally  aggressive. 
The  success  of  the  Bremen  company's  tactics  spurred  this 
organisation  to  enter  the  same  field.  A  bitter  commercial 
war  was  the  result,  and  the  British  companies  succeeded 
in  retrieving  partially  the  position  they  had  lost  through 
the  quarrel.  Meantime  the  Japanese  were  quietly  forging 
ahead,  and  this  new  influence  soon  exercised  its  effect  upon 
Teuton  ambitions. 

This    manifestation    of    energy    was    also    affecting    the 


330    STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST   OF   THE    WORLD 

German  industries  at  home.  The  existing  yards  found 
themselves  somewhat  taxed,  and  accordingly  new  com- 
panies and  establishments  came  into  existence.  Simul- 
taneously the  mining  and  steel  industries,  which  had  lan- 
guished for  so  many  years,  were  in  danger  of  being 
overwhelmed  by  orders  for  raw  material.  They  also  put 
their  houses  in  order.  Capital  was  invested  heavily  to 
finance  expansions  and  the  installation  of  up-to-date  time- 
and  labour-saving  machinery.  Manufactories  sprang  up 
in  all  directions  devoted  to  the  design  and  production  of 
cranes  and  handling  plants,  both  for  the  yards,  the  mines 
and  the  ironworks. 

The  mercantile  awakening  of  Germany  in  less  than  two 
decades  was  amazing.  Whereas  in  1880  the  two  or  three 
shipbuilding  establishments  then  in  existence  were  in  a 
semi-bankrupt  condition,  and  were  compelled  to  be  satisfied 
with  the  crumbs  that  fell  from  the  British  tables,  in  1907 
they  had  attained  a  position  of  complete  independence. 
In  that  year  vessels  aggregating  310,000  registered  tons 
were  built  by  some  40  firms,  employing  altogether  about 
70,000  men.  Whereas  in  the  'seventies  and  'eighties  those 
of  the  rising  German  generation  who  had  a  leaning  to- 
wards marine  engineering  found  employm.ent  in  British 
yards,  since  they  were  denied  the  opportunity  to  practise 
their  bent  at  home,  to-day  very  few  Germans  are  found 
outside  the  native  organisations.  These  men,  drilled  and 
schooled  in  British  practice,  so  soon  as  they  realised  the 
significance  of  the  German  awakening,  returned  to  the 
Fatherland,  taking  with  them  the  knowledge  acquired  in 
these  islands;  and  how  successfully  they  have  been  able  to 
apply  this  knowledge  is  reflected  amply  by  the  many 
magnificent  boats  which  have  been  turned  out  of  the 
German  yards. 

The  British  workman  profited  hugely  from  the  boom. 
The  finest  skill  was  enticed  from  the  yards  of  the  Tyne  and 
Clyde  to  Germany  by  high  wages  to  teach  the  rising 
Teuton  generation.  In  the  course  of  a  few  years  the 
Germans  were  able  to  walk  alone,  and  the  British  teachers 


WHY    GERMANY    BUILDS    HER    LINERS     331 

were  dismissed,  to  return  to  their  former  scenes  of  activity. 
It  was  English  knowledge  in  German  hands  which  pro- 
duced the  Kaiser  Wilhelm  der  Grosse,  followed  by  the 
Deutschland,  which  for  some  years  ranked  as  the  fastest 
vessel  afloat,  and  thus  wrested  the  blue  ribbon  of  the 
Atlantic  from  these  islands.  Speed  was  only  one  phase  of 
their  enterprise.  The  German  companies  followed  British 
practice,  recognised  the  value  of  the  heavy  combined 
passenger  boat  and  freighter,  and  entered  this  field  with 
similar  craft,  of  which  the  George  Washington  is  the  finest 
example  in  the  German  service,  and  this  skill  has  cul- 
minated in  the  Imperator,  of  65,000  tons. 

It  will  be  remarked  that  the  Germans  have  followed 
slavishly  in  British  footsteps,  but  this  is  only  in  accordance 
with  Teuton  traditions.  The  German  is  a  magnificent 
copyist,  but  a  poor  pioneer.  This  is  the  sole  reason  why 
German  mercantile  shipbuilding  has  not  produced  a  pattern 
to  be  copied  universally.  The  Britisher,  taken  on  the 
whole,  is  said  to  be  hidebound  by  conservatism  and 
prejudice,  but  however  true  this  may  be  of  some  industries, 
it  certainly  does  not  apply  to  marine  engineering.  Here 
the  Parsons  steam  turbine  has  made  great  advances  in 
shipbuilding  circles — in  Germany  it  is  still  in  its  infancy. 
For  some  occult  reason  or  other  the  Germans  do  not  appear 
to  be  disposed  to  its  adoption- — at  first  they  ridiculed  its 
possibilities.  This  is  the  one  failing  which  the  Teuton 
possesses  in  regard  to  shipbuilding — he  is  content  to  follow^ 
about  seven  years  behind  British  practice.  It  is  admitted 
that  the  British  shipbuilders  have  made  the  pace  very  hot, 
and  shipbuilding  is  an  expensive  game. 

This  manifestation  of  "follow  the  leader  "  is  bringing  the 
German  mercantile  marine  face  to  face  with  another  rival. 
For  many  years  the  Compagnie  G^n^rale  Transatlantique 
was  content  to  jog  along  in  a  quiet  manner.  When  it 
desired  new  boats  it  purchased  them  from  British  yards, 
but,  the  traflic  being  limited,  no  attempt  was  made  to  keep 
in  the  van  of  progress.  As,  however,  the  focus  of  trans- 
Atlantic  travel  became  shifted  from  Liverpool  to  the  English 


332     STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST  OF   THE   WORLD 

Channel,  and  the  trade  between  American  and  European 
ports  developed,  as  a  result  of  the  success  of  the  German 
vessels,  this  old  French  company  shook  off  its  lethargy, 
and  incidentally  its  patronage  of  British  yards  for  its  crack 
vessels.  It  placed  its  orders  with  French  firms,  and  the 
significance  of  this  move  was  revealed  by  the  production 
of  the  magnificent  twin  liners  Savoie  and  Provence.  They 
created  a  sensation  upon  their  appearance,  and  the  skill 
of  the  French  shipbuilders  was  revealed  in  no  uncertain 
manner.  The  Germans  felt  the  arrival  of  these  com- 
petitors severely,  as  both  these  vessels  pressed  the  famous 
Deutschland  hard  for  speed.  On  her  second  trip  across 
the  Atlantic  from  New  York  the  Provence,  which  had 
started  from  the  American  port  twenty  minutes  behind 
the  crack  liner  of  the  Hamburg-American  Company, 
passed  the  Lizard  only  fifty  miles  behind,  having  driven 
the  German  greyhound  hard  all  the  way  across  the 
Atlantic. 

These  French  liners  proving  successful,  the  Compagnie 
G^n^rale  Transatlantique  resolved  to  attempt  bigger 
things,  and  their  latest  boat,  the  France,  is  probably  the 
speediest  boat  on  the  Atlantic,  with  the  exception  of  the 
Cunard  flyers.  Like  her  consorts,  she  hailed  from  a  French 
yard,  and  her  owners  and  builders,  recognising  the  qualities 
of  the  Parsons  turbines,  fitted  this  23,000-tonner,  measur- 
ing 715  f^Gt  from  end  to  end,  with  engines  of  this  type 
developing  45,000  horse-power,  which  is  sufficient  to  give 
the  vessel  a  speed  of  23I-24  knots  per  hour.  On  her  official 
trials  she  reached  a  speed  of  25*9  knots  per  hour,  so  that 
she  is  a  formidable  rival,  when  roused,  to  the  German 
grevhounds. 

The  growth  of  the  German  mercantile  marine  is  reflected 
very  convincingly  in  every  direction.  The  activities  of  the 
Norddeutscher  Lloyd  have  completely  changed  the  old 
town  of  Bremen  and  its  harbour.  Huge  graving  docks, 
capable  of  carrying  the  largest  vessels  of  the  above  steam- 
ship line,  have  been  laid  down,  with  miles  of  quays  and 
acres  of  workshops  and  factories.     The  civic  authorities. 


A    CiLIMPSE    OK    TH^:    CHILDREN  S    ROOM 

Designed  by  Heinrich  Pallenberg. 


A    CORNER    OF    THE    LIBRARY 

Designed  by  Professor  IJnnio  Paul. 

MODKRX    DOMESTIC    ARCHITECTURE    UPON    THE    NORTH- 
GERMAN    LLOVD    LINER    GEORGE    WASHINGTON 


o  = 


S    _  o 


WHY   GERMANY    BUILDS    HER    LINERS    333 

recognising  the  fact  that  their  existence  depends  upon  the 
steamship  company  so  closely  identified  with  the  port,  have 
displayed  striking  enterprise  and  co-operation.  When  the 
company  sought  a  new  dock  for  their  largest  vessel,  the 
State  of  Bremen  offered  to  make  it  1000  feet  in  length;  but 
the  Norddeutscher  Lloyd  declaring  that  the  increase  in 
the  length  of  their  vessels  using  Bremerhaven  was  limited 
by  the  fairway  conditions  of  the  Weser,  a  length  of  about 
760  feet  was  decided  as  sufficient.  In  Hamburg  the  same 
activity  is  displayed.  Here  the  floating  dock  has  em- 
phasised its  possibilities  in  no  uncertain  manner,  one 
immense  structure  of  this  character,  able  to  lift  some  46,000 
tons,  being  in  operation.  The  yards  not  only  undertake 
the  construction  of  vessels,  but  are  exceedingly  busy  in 
connection  with  repairs.  Whereas  vessels  were  wont  to 
come  to  British  yards  for  overhaul,  this  work  is  now  carried 
out  almost  exclusively  in  German  yards,  and  constitutes  a 
successful  feature  in  their  business  operations. 

The  growth  of  these  two  prominent  steamship  companies 
has  been  phenomenal.  By  acquisition  of  existing  lines  in 
different  parts  of  the  world,  the  inauguration  of  new  routes 
and  development  of  existing  lines  of  communication,  they 
now  rank  among  the  biggest  shipping  organisations  in 
operation.  The  Hamburg-American  flag  to-day  flies  over 
vessels  aggregating  961,804  gross  tons,  while  that  of  the 
Norddeutscher  Lloyd  aggregates  700,000  gross  tons.  It 
has  been  calculated  that  in  the  course  of  twenty  years 
native  shipbuilding  operations  benefited  other  German 
industries  to  the  extent  of  nearly  ^75,000,000,  or 
$375,000,000. 

Unlike  the  British  yards  and  manufacturing  businesses, 
the  respective  plants  have  not  been  improved  in  con- 
sonance with  the  march  of  progress.  The  various 
industries  of  Germany  bearing  upon  the  shipbuilding 
industry  were  called  into  existence  suddenly  to  meet  a 
new  situation.  The  outlay  was  heavy,  undoubtedly,  but 
the  works  had  the  smallest  scrap-heap,  for  the  simple 
reason  that  they  were  founded  when  those  of  other  countries 


334     STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST   OF   THE   WORLD 

had  completed  their  organisation  to  meet  the  conditions 
prevailing  very  many  years  before.  Accordingly,  German 
works  simply  were  called  upon  to  copy  the  best  facilities 
of  the  day,  with  an  eye  upon  the  future.  Nothing  had  to 
be  demolished  to  make  way  for  the  new  plant,  since  there 
was  nothing  to  supersede. 

As  already  mentioned,  this  sudden  development  brought 
several  firms  into  being,  who  devoted  their  energies 
towards  the  production  of  special  plants.  Among  these 
the  crane-builder  stands  pre-eminent.  The  shipbuilding 
yards  of  Germany  are  extensively  equipped  with  power- 
ful and  strange-looking  devices  for  lifting  and  hand- 
ling the  thousands  of  parts  which  form  the  fabric  of  a 
modern  liner.  Some  of  them  are  of  striking  design  and 
power.  In  fact,  if  Germany  is  compared  with  any  other 
nation  practising  shipbuilding,  it  is  evident,  so  far  as  the 
yards  are  concerned,  that  she  is  far  and  away  in  advance  of 
all  her  competitors.  In  the  shipyards  of  Great  Britain  and  on 
the  American  Great  Lakes  manual  effort  is  in  urgent  and 
continuous  demand  for  the  removal  of  material  :  in  Ger- 
many it  is  reduced  to  the  minimum.  The  result  has  been 
somewhat  remarkable.  When  any  country  requires  a 
powerful  crane  for  special  purposes,  ninety-nine  times  out 
of  one  hundred  it  will  go  to  Germany  for  its  needs.  On  the 
Tyne  they  have  a  floating  crane  which  will  lift  a  matter  of 
150  tons,  which  was  requisitioned  in  connection  with 
the  fitting  out  of  the  Mauretania ;  it  is  of  German  origin. 
At  Belfast,  Messrs.  Harland  &  Wolff  required  a  like 
appliance  for  similar  work ;  that  also  came  from  Germany. 
And  the  same  condition  applies  to  other  parts  of  the  world. 
Among  the  German  yards,  an  ounce  of  muscle  is  saved  by 
mechanical  effort  when  possible. 

The  essential  reason  for  this  tendency  is  not  to  save  time 
or  labour,  as  might  be  supposed.  It  is  to  remedy  a  severe 
handicap  under  which  the  German  industry  suffers,  and 
which  cannot  be  avoided.  Placed  beside  an  English  or 
American  workman,  the  Teuton  artificer  is  sadly  deficient. 
He  does  not  possess  the  stamina  or  physique  of  his  rivals, 


WHY    GERMANY    BUILDS    HER    LINERS    335 

so  accordingly  Nature  must  be  supplemented  by  mechanical 
effort.  In  this  particular  instance  mechanical  labour  does 
not  necessarily  cheapen  the  cost  of  production.  In  Ger- 
many labour  is  cheaper  than  in  Great  Britain,  material 
approximates  the  same  figure,  and  yet  it  is  impossible  to 
build  a  ship  as  cheaply  in  Germany  as  in  Britain.  This 
has  been  proved  time  after  time.  When  an  order  has  been 
thrown  in  the  open  market,  the  German  has  been  hopelessly 
eclipsed. 

The  reason,  bearing  in  mind  the  foregoing  advantages, 
seems  somewhat  obscure,  and  yet  it  is  easily  explained. 
The  native  workman  in  the  German  shipbuilding  yard  is 
the  product  of  one  generation  :  his  colleague  in  the  British 
yard  is  the  product  of  centuries.  In  marine  engineering 
hereditary  qualifications  go  a  very  long  way.  Son  has 
followed  father  in  the  yards  of  the  Clyde  and  Tyne 
for  so  many  generations  that  shipbuilding  has  developed 
almost  into  a  sixth  sense,  and  this  is  the  sole  reason  why 
Germany  cannot  secure  a  footing  as  a  builder  of  ships 
outside  her  own  borders.  She  cannot  even  meet  all  the 
demands  of  her  own  shipping.  About  thirty  per  cent,  of 
the  year's  annual  contribution  to  German  shipping  is  built 
abroad,  the  greater  part  in  Great  Britain,  and  this  state  of 
affairs  tends  to  increase  rather  than  decrease.  Instead  of 
the  mining  and  steel  industries  disposing  of  about  one- 
third  of  their  total  output  to  the  shipyards,  as  is  the  case 
in  Britain,  barely  one-fifteenth  is  consumed  by  German 
shipbuilders.  If  it  were  not  for  the  patriotism  of  the 
Hamburg-American  and  Norddeutscher  Lloyd  lines  in 
placing  orders  for  their  ships  with  native  builders,  Ger- 
many, as  a  shipbuilding  nation,  would  rank  very  low  in 
the  scale.  The  last-named  line  in  particular  has  been  the 
bulwark  of  this  industry.  The  Hamburg-American  Line, 
on  the  other  hand,  is  not  so  loyal  as  its  native  rival.  It 
still  patronises  British  yards,  v.here  it  is  able  to  obtain 
what  it  requires  more  quickly,  cheaper  and  better  than  at 
home.  This  tendency  applies  particularly  to  vessels 
departing   in   design   from   the  orthodox,   or   required   for 


336    STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST  OF   THE   WORLD 

special  services.  The  pride  of  German  shipbuilding  at  the 
moment  is  concentrated  in  the  Imperator — the  first  of  a 
trio  of  this  type — the  order  for  which  was  placed  in  the 
first  instance  with  the  Belfast  firm  of  Harland  &  Wolff, 
to  be  abandoned  for  the  time  being  owing  to  financial  de- 
pression. When  the  situation  became  readjusted,  pressure 
was  brought  to  bear  upon  the  shipowners  from  powerful 
quarters,  the  contract  was  reconsidered  and  handed  to  a 
German  firm.  The  Iniperator  is  virtually  a  larger  edition 
of  the  Olympic,  and  in  this  instance  again  Germany  is 
resting  content  with  a  design  several  years  old.  Meantime 
the  British  yards  have  forged  ahead,  and  although  the 
German  mercantile  marine  will  possess  the  first  65,000- 
tonner  afloat,  its  glory  will  be  short-lived,  as  it  is  being 
surpassed  by  two  British  representatives. 

The  German  mercantile  marine  secured  its  strong 
position  by  practising  the  policy  of  absorption  and 
amalgamation,  by  eliminating  inter-competition  and  secur- 
ing a  foothold  in  new  trading  centres  of  the  globe,  with 
the  attendant  reduction  in  expenses  that  must  follow  any 
community  of  interests.  On  more  than  one  occasion  rate 
wars  and  quarrels  between  the  two  leading  lines  have 
reduced  the  shipping  trade  to  chaos,  while  it  must  be 
remembered  that  occasionally  rate  wars  break  out  between 
rival  nations.  The  Cunard  Line  has  been  a  somewhat 
aggressive  offender  in  this  respect,  especially  after  the 
appearance  of  its  two  crack  liners,  which,  on  account  of 
their  speed  and  luxury,  secured  the  greatest  proportion  of 
the  Atlantic  passenger  trade.  A  rate  war  immediately 
followed  their  commission,  precipitated  by  the  Germans, 
and,  like  a  malignant  epidemic,  it  spread  with  astonishing 
virulence,  until  at  last  one  could  cross  the  Atlantic  for  a 
matter  of  thirty  shillings  ($7.50).  The  differences  were 
adjusted  finally,  with  the  Cunard  Line  triumphant,  and 
it  was  agreed  that  there  should  be  a  sliding  scale  of 
fares,  according  to  the  classification  of  the  boats.  The 
Cunard  flyers  were  placed  in  the  highest  scale,  with  the 
result     that     the     line     benefited     appreciably,     since     it 


WHY    GERMANY    BUILDS    HER    LINERS    337 

retained  and  increased  its  popularity.  The  revenue  rose 
owing  to  the  higher  rating  of  the  boats  than  was  the 
case  upon  their  first  appearance. 

In  Great  Britain  the  shipping  interests  are  supported 
by  subsidies,  in  the  form  of  payments  for  carrying  the 
mails,  and  the  reservation  of  approved  vessels  as  auxiliary 
cruisers  for  the  navy  in  time  of  war.  The  German  lines 
receive  like  recompenses  from  their  Government  for  similar 
duties,  and  in  addition  obtain  substantial  subsidies  in  a 
direct  form  for  the  maintenance  of  the  German  flag  in 
waters  where  the  trade  otherwise  would  be  impossible, 
owing  to  insufficiency  of  traffic  or  stress  of  competition. 
It  was  in  this  manner,  as  already  explained,  that  Germany 
secured  her  footing  in  the  East.  In  addition,  the  German 
lines  were  guaranteed  a  limited  dividend,  on  the  basis  of 
six  per  cent.,  by  the  Morgan  Shipping  Trust,  which  sought 
to  bring  the  German  lines  within  its  meshes,  but  for 
political  reasons  the  suggestion  was  repulsed,  and  a 
reciprocal  sharing  of  profits  and  guarantees  arranged. 

Although  Germany  has  achieved  a  strong  position  in 
the  world's  mercantile  marine,  history  is  repeating  itself. 
As  Germany  threatened  Great  Britain,  she  herself  is  being 
subjected  to  the  force  of  competition.  The  French  nation 
is  making  a  bold  bid  for  the  increasing  and  remunerative 
traffic  between  the  North  American  continent  and  Europe, 
and  it  would  not  be  surprising  if  the  greyhounds  of  the 
Compagnie  Generale  Transatlantique,  instead  of  sailing 
direct  between  Havre  and  New  York,  were  to  make  a  call 
at  Plymouth,  to  participate  in  the  British  traffic.  The 
divergence  would  not  affect  the  length  of  the  passage.  In 
the  East  the  Japanese  shipbuilding  interests  are  in  the 
ascendant,  where,  indeed,  an  evolution  similar  to  that 
characteristic  of  Germany  is  in  rapid  progress.  Moreover, 
there  is  a  spirit  of  amalgamating  interests  springing  up 
among  the  shipping  communities  of  Great  Britain,  obvious 
competitive  lines  consolidating  to  effect  economies  and  to 
give  enhanced  efficiency.  A  general  speeding  up  in  ocean 
travel  throughout  the  world  is  being  also  displayed.  The 
z 


338    STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST  OF   THE   WORLD 

growing  new  countries  desire  to  be  brought  closer  to  the 
markets  of  the  Old  World.  Whereas  formerly  the  North 
Atlantic  was  the  sea  on  which  the  demand  for  speed  was 
waged  most  keenly,  to-day  it  is  only  one  in  many.  This 
means  that  the  country  which  possesses  the  fullest  re- 
sources, the  best-equipped  yards,  the  finest  class  of  work- 
men, and  the  ability  to  bring  the  very  latest  developments 
into  practical  application,  is  the  one  which  will  forge  ahead. 
For  more  than  a  decade  shipbuilders  and  shipowners  in 
Great  Britain  followed  a  somewhat  laisses  faire  policy,  but 
under  the  spirited  competition  arising  from  the  awakening 
German  nation  it  received  a  fresh  impetus,  which  at  the 
present  moment  is  developing  rather  than  retarding.  If 
the  signs  of  the  times  can  be  read  aright,  the  next  decade 
will  witness  a  more  powerful  bid  than  ever  for  mercantile 
supremacy  and  the  more  complete  "Steamship  Conquest  of 
the  World." 


INDEX 


Adelaide,  the,  139 

Aden,  the,  298 

Adriatic,  the,  11 

Airy,  Sir  George,  271 

Alaska,  the,   140 

Allan  Line,  47-48,  138 

"Alligator"  type  of  boat,   246 

Alma  Cumtnings,  the,  193-194 

Ambrose,  the,  309 

American,  the,   140 

Anecdotes:  City  of  Rome,  68; 
launching  in  Italy,  66;  the 
Kaiser  Friedrich,  68;  the 
Mauretania,  70 ;  the  Kaiser 
Wilhelm  der  Grosse,  90;  sea 
surveying,  268 ;  utility  versus 
decoration,  74-75 

Angle-bar,  32 

Anson,  H.M.S.,  21/ 

Aquitania,  the,   15 

Arctic,  the,  136-137,  152-153 

Arizona,  the,  88,  140 

Armit,  Thomas  Napier,  217-220, 
230 

Armstrong,  Whitworth  &  Co., 
Sir  W.,  247 

Asloun,  the,  213 

"Balsa,"  Peruvian  boat,  237 

Baltic,  the,  11,  136 

Barnes,  Dr.  H.  T.,  169 

Batchelor,  Captain,  salvage 
engineer,  225 

Bell,  Henry,  2 

Bell,  submarine;  see  Submarine- 
bell 

Belle  Halliday,  the,  200 

Bender,  mechanical,  32,  33 

Bermuda,  the,  230-231 

Berth,  or  building  slip,  29-30 

"Between  perpendiculars" 
(measurement),  37 

Bevelling  machine,  31 

Bilge  keel,  34,  48 

Blengfell,  the,   186 


"Blink"  of  the  iceberg,  168 
"  Blue   Ribbon   of  the   Atlantic," 
133  ;  historic  contest,    134-135  ; 
first  race,   136;  American  com- 
petition,    137-138;     speed    de- 
velopment,   138-144 ;   the  course, 
139-140;  German  competition, 
146-147 
"  Boat  control,"  102 
"Bossed,"  term  in  shipbuilding, 

34 
Boulton  &  Watt,  Messrs.,  2 
Bourgogne,  the,  89,  175-176 
Bow,  McLachlan  &  Co.,  Messrs., 

233 

Bower,  Lieut.  James  St.  John, 
272 

"Bridge,"  the  (ice  block),  168 

Briggs,  Arthur  (diver),  227-229 

Britannia,  the,  7,  56 ;  Charles 
Dickens  as  passenger,  72  ;  first 
trans-Atlantic  race,  136,  138 

Britannic,  the,  139 

British  Hjdrographical  Dept., 
262 

British  Prince,  the,  178,  313 

British  Queen,  the,  133 

British  Queen  Navigation  Co., 
the,   133 

Brum,  Dr.  (engineer),  20 

Brunei,  Isambard  K.,  I,  3;  the 
Great  Eastern,  4-6,  88 ;  trans- 
Atlantic  service,  133 

Buenos  Ayrean,  the,  48 

Building  slip,  or  berth,  29-30 

Bulkhead,  collision,  88 

Biilwarra,  the,  178-179 

Burns,  George,  3 

Callao,  the  (floating  dock),  259 
Campania,    the,    41-42,    49;    coal 

consumption,  148;  Blue  Ribbon 

contest,    143-144 
Canadian     Pacific     Lake     liners, 

129 


339 


340 


INDEX 


Canton,  the,  224-225 
Careis-Diesel  engine,  319 
Cargoes :     dangerous,     165-187 ; 
on  the  tramp,  204-209 ;  salvage 
of,  226-229 
Casquets,  the  (rocks),  295 
Catterthurn,  the,  227-229 
Cedric,  the,   11 
Celtic,  the,  11 

"Centre  keelson"  of  a  ship,  33 
China,  the,  40 
Christian  X,  the,  322 
City  of  Berlin,  the,  138,  139 
City  of  Boston,  the,  162 
City  of  Brussels,  the,  138 
City  of  Glasgow,  the,  40,  162 
City  of  New    York,   the,   9,    1^2- 

143;  coal  consumption,    148 
City    of    Paris,    the,    9,    142-143 ; 
breakdown,  188;  coal  consump- 
tion,    148;    on    the    Manacles, 
292;  salvage  of,  215-217 
City  of  Rome,  the  (1873),  68,  139 
City  of  Rome,  the  (1881),   140 
Clan  Grant,  the,  225-226 
Clark    and     Standfield,    Messrs., 

Classification  societies,  24,  74 

Clipperton  Island,  206 

Coal  consumption,  53,  148 

Coffer  dam,  97;  process  in  sal- 
vaging, 218-219 

Collins  Line,  87,  136;  Blue 
Ribbon  contest,  138 

Collision  bulkhead,  88 

Comet,  the,  i 

Commissariat  of  liners,   114-117 

Compagnie  G^n^rale  Trans- 
atlantique.  La,  138,  331-332; 
modernisation  of  vessels,  304 

Compound  engine,  41 

Condenser,  the,  54 

Congo,  the,  264 

Cook,    Captain,    of    the    Russia, 

138 
Coya,  the,  238-243 
"  C  Q  "  signal,  279 
"  C  Q  D  "  signal,  279,  280 
Cradles,  in  shipbuilding,  60 
Crathie,    the,    294 
Cromartyshire,  the,  175-176 
Crown,  the,  190-191 
Cubana,  the,  196 
Cunnrd     Line,     3-4;     propelling 

machinery,  50-54  ;  Blue  Ribbon 


contest,  136-143,  147-148;  mail 
contracts,    144-145;   rate  wars, 

336-337 
Cunard,  Samuel,  3 
Cyril,  the,  229 

Daily  paper  on  Atlantic  liner,  85 

Dakota,  the,  13,  1^7 

Danger-spots  (of  the  ocean),  290  ; 
in  English  Channel,  291-296; 
in  Red  Sea,  297-298;  in  the 
Atlantic,  296-300 ;  off  Cape 
Colony,  300 

Daphne,  the,  65 

Darlington  Forge  Company,  35 

"  Dead  reckoning "  in  naviga- 
tion,  177 

D^cotte,  Robert,  83 

Delhi,  the,  297 

Denny  Brothers,  40,  45,  49; 
speciality  of,  233,   238 

Denton  Grange,  the,  309 

Derelicts,  189 ;  famous  derelicts, 
190-195;  salvage  of,  195-196, 
200-201  ;  destruction  of,  197- 
200,   230-231 

Deutschland,  the,  42,  146;  coal 
consumption,  148;  commis- 
sariat dept.,  115;  damaged 
nose,  310 

Dickens,  Charles,  72 

Diesel  engine,  316-320 

"Displacement"  of   vessel,   37 

"Dogs"  in  shipbuilding,   31 

"Drawing  the  lines"  of  a 
vessel,  25 

Drummond  Castle,  the,  296 

Dungeness,  Cape,  293-294 

Dunmore,  the,   194-195 

Earle's  Shipbuilding  and 

Engineering  Co.,  243 
Elbe,  the,  294-295 
Electric  Arc,  the,  324 
Electric    propulsion,    324-325 
Eltringham  &  Co.,  J.  T. ,  324 
Emigrants,    accommodation    for, 

137 
Engineer,      marine,      12 ;      some 

difificult   problems   for,   232-248 
Engines:  steam,  41-49,  321-322; 

internal      combustion      motor, 

316-326 
Ermach,    the,    308 
Etruria,  the,  49,  69;  Blue  Ribbon 

contest,   141,   142 


INDEX 


341 


Fairfield  Engineering  Co.,  42,  49 

Fannie  E.   Wolston,  the,  192-193 

Favourite,  the,  294 

Fire,  at  sea,  185;  fire  alarm,  112- 
113;  some  accidents,  186-187 

Fitch,  Henry,  i 

Floating  dock,  249-251  ;  story  of 
origin,  151-152  ;  advantages  of, 
253-255-  257-258;  types  of, 
253-257;  at  Harnburg,  332 

Floor-plates,   in  shipbuilding,  34 

Florida,  the,  88,  310-312 

log.  ^75^1/8;  at  Thames  mouth, 
290 

Fottinger,  Prof,  (inventor),  323 

Fram,  the,  317 

France,  the,  82-84  J  commis- 
sariat, 116-117;  life-saving 
appliances,  104 

Freighter,  lake,   122-127 

Froude,  W.  and  R.  E.,  20 

Fulton,  Robert,  2-3 

Gas-engine,  marine,  323-325 

George    Washington,  the,  80 

Georgian  Bay  Canal,  13 

Germanic,  the,   139 

Goodwins,  the,  294 

Grand  Banks  fisheries,  170 

Grant,  Richard,  234 

"Graveyard  of  the  Atlantic," 
the,  299 

Graveyards,  ocean ;  see  Danger- 
spots,  ocean 

Gray,  Prof.  Elisha,   104 

Great  Britain,  the,  39 

Great  Eastern,  the,  4-6,  61,  88 

Great  Lakes  of  America,  119- 
122,  130-131;  freight  traffic, 
122-127;  passenger  traffic, 
128-130 

Great   Western,  the,    133-135 

"Great  White  Waterway,"  the, 
124 

Grecian,  the,   176 

"Greyhound  of  the  Atlantic," 
the,   140 

Gringoes,  the,  of  S.  America, 
241 

"Growlers"  (icebergs),    168 

Guion  Line,  139,  140 

"Half-model"  of  a  vessel,  25 
Hamburg  American  Line,  9,   138, 
257 ;      Blue      Ribbon      contest, 


147;  British-built  vessels,   145; 

German  vessels,    15,  328,  335 ; 

growth      of,      333 ;      steamless 

vessels,  322 
Harland  &  Wolff,  Messrs.,  8,  15 
Harmonic,  the,   128-129 
Haslar,     experimental    tank    at, 

20-2 1 
Hatteras,  Cape,  298 
Hawthorn,  Leslie  &  Co.,  304 
Hill,  James  J.,  13 
Holzapfels  Limited,  323 
Humphrys,  Robert,  43 
Hunter,  George  B.,  20 

lanthe,  the;  see  Daphne,  the 

Ice  :  disasters,  162-164;  icebergs, 
164-165;  field  ice,  167;  indica- 
tions of,  168-169;  utility  of 
bergs,  169-170;  on  inland  seas, 
170-173;  adventure  on  an  ice 
floe,  271-272 

Ice-breaking  ferry,  247 

Imperator,  the,  15,  60,  336 

Inca,  the,  243 

Inman  or  International  Line,  10, 
40,  137-138;  Blue  Ribbon  con- 
test, 139 

Inverclyde,  Lord,   15 

Ismay,   Imrie  &  Co.,   7 

Ivitgut  (port),  204 

Japan,    shipping   on    the    Pacific, 

13 
Jean,  the,  48 
Johns,   W.   (engineer),   20 
Jutlandia,  the,  319 

Kaiser  Friedrich,  the,  68 

Kaiser  Wilhehn  der  Grosse,  the, 
10,  146 ;  Stone-Lloyd  water- 
tight doors,  89-90 ;  unlucky 
experience,  183 ;  wireless  tele- 
graphy, 278 

Kaiser  Wilhehn  II,  the,  12 

Keel,  of  a  vessel,  33-34 

King  Edward,  the,  45 

Kinkora,   the,   211-212 

Kronprinzessin  Cecilie,  the,  12, 
43,  95;  decoration,  81 

Kronprinz    Wilhelm,  the,   10,    147 

Kruger,  Prof.  F.  A.  O.,  So 

"  Kyrolith,"  204 

Laing,  Andrew,  4Q 


34^ 


INDEX 


Lambert  (diver),  227 

Laroix  (artist),  83 

La  Touche  (artist),  83 

Launching  :  of  a  liner,  57-63 ; 
ceremony  described,  63-64;  a 
misiiap,  64-66;  of  a  lifeboat, 
98  foil. 

"  Lay  down  the  lines "  in  ship- 
building, 24 

Lifeboats,  98-103 

"Lifting"  in  launching,  58 

Linkleter  life-raft,    103-104 

Liquid  fuel,  321-322 

Liverpool  Salvage  Association, 
221-222,  224-226 

Loch  Maree,   the,    195-196 

"Loftsman,"  the,  in  shipbuild- 
ing. 27 

Loveridge  &  Co.,  Messrs.  VV.  H., 
223-224 

Lucania,  the,  143-144;  engines 
described,  41-42;  luxurious 
appointments,  73;  breakdown, 
187-188 

Lusitania,  the,  19-20,  95-96, 
147 ;  trial  trips,  69-70 ;  decora- 
tions, 78;  record,   148 

Macdonald,  S.  D.,  299 

Maclver,  David,  3 

Mail  contract:  British,  144-145; 
German,  328 

Majestic,  the,  9,  73,  142 

Makaroff,  Admiral,   170 -171 

Manacles,  the,  291-293 

Manganese  bronze,  for  pro- 
pellers, 52 

Marconi,  Guglielmo,   ?76,  288 

Marconi  Wireless  Chart  of  the 
North  Atlantic,  281   (illus.) 

Marine  Survey  of" India,  262 

Mauretania,  the,  19-23,  49;  de- 
tails of  construction,  33-36; 
propelling  machinery,  50-54 ; 
launching  of,  60-64;  ^^'^^^  trips, 
69-71;  decorations,  77-78; 
water-tight  compartments,  95- 
96;  electric  station  on,  109- 
iio;  Blue  Ribbon  contest,  147; 
records,  148 

Maury,  Matthew  Fontaine,  154- 
161 

Mavor     and     Coulson,     Messrs., 

May,  William,  227-229 


"  'Midship     section "     drawings, 

24 
Milton,  the,   184 
Milwaukee,    the,    221-222;    306- 

307 
Minnesota,  the,  13 
Mohegan,  the,  292-293 
Morgan  Shipping  Trust,  337 
Morse    Dry    Dock    and     Repair 

Co.,  311-312 
Mould-loft,  in  shipbuilding,  27 
Mundy,  A.  J.,  104 

"Naked  form"  of  a  vessel,  21 

Naronic,  the,   162 

National  Line,  7,   140 

Nelson,  Lord,  and  Bell's  inven- 
tion, 2 

Nelson    (sculptor),    83 

Nessmore,  the,  167 

Netta  Champion,  the  (derelict), 
191 

Norddeutscher  Lloyd  Co.  ;  see 
North  German  Lloyd  Co. 

Norge,    the,    297 

North  German  Lloyd  Co.,  9,  138; 
decoration  of  vessels,  76,  80 ; 
Stone-Lloyd  water-tight  doors, 
89;  .commissariat,  116;  Blue 
Ribbon  contest,  146-147; 
modernisation  of  vessels,  305; 
growth  of,  328 ;  German-built 
vessels,  335 

Northern  Navigation  and  Grand 
Trunk  Railway  Co.,   128 

Nyanza,  the,  236 

Oceana,   the,   226-227 

Oceanic,  the  (first),  7-8 

Oceanic,  the  (second),  6,   lo-ii 

Olbrlch,  Josef,  81 

Olympic,  the,  14,  60;  compared 
with  the  Comet,  2 ;  details  of 
construction,  35;  propelling 
machinery,  55-56 ;  decorative 
styles  on,  77-78 

Oregon,  the,  6q,   140 

Otaki,    the,    49 

Owen,  Vice-Admiral  VV.  F.,  264- 
266 

Pacific,  the,  136,  153 
Paddle-wheel,  5,  39 
Parisian,  the,  48 
Parker,  Henry,  215-217 


INDEX 


343 


Parsons,  Hon.  Sir  Charles  A., 
40,  44-46 

Paul,  Prof.  Bruno,  80-82 

Pavonia,  the,  180-183 

Pellenberg,   Heinrich,  80 

Penguin,  the,  270 

Pentland,  the,  172 

Philadelphia,  the,  143 

Pirrie,  Lord,  15 

Planing-  machine,  in  shipbuild- 
ing, 30 

Poisson  (artist),  83 

Polar-Diesel  engine,  319 

Polaris,  the,  271 

Poona,  the,  305 

Poppe,  Johann,  76,  80 

Port  Darwin,  the,  209-211 

"Pride  of  the  Atlantic,"  the,   139 

Prince  Friedrich  Wilhehn,  the, 
80 

Prince  George,  the,  48 

Prince  Rupert,  the,  48 

"Profile"  of  a  vessel,  24 

Propeller  brackets,  34 

Propelling  machinery  :  pro- 
pellers, 39-40;  engines,  41-50, 
317-325;  miscellaneous,   51-56 

Provence,  the,  332 

Punching  machine,  in  shipbuild- 
ing. 30 

Quadrant  davit ;  see  Welin  davit 
Quadruple  expansion  engine,  41 

Radio-telegraphic  Conference, 
1906,  277,  280 

Ram,  hydraulic,  in  launching,  61 

Ranger,  the,  227,  229 

Rankine,  McQuorn,  20 

Rate-wars,   336-337 

Reciprocating  engine,  44,  47 

Reed,  Sir  E.  J.,  20 

Refrigerating  machinery,  on  a 
liner,  in 

Repairs  and  alterations,  302- 
304;  in  mid-ocean,  179,  183- 
185  ;  modernisation  of  vessels, 
304-306;  examination  of  vessel, 
309;  collision  wounds,  310; 
some  interesting  cases,  306- 
309,  3" -315 

R^publique,   the,   286 

Research,  the,  273-274 

Ribs,  shaping  of,  31-32 

Riemerschmidt,  Richard,  81 


Rigaud,  Hyacinthe,  83 
Riveting,  in  shipbuilding,  35-36 
Rockall  (rock),  296-297 
Root's  Blower,  216 
Rose,  the;  see  Daphne,  the 
"Rotor"  of  the  turbine,  46,  51 
Royal  William,  the,  133 
Russia,  the,  138 

Sable  Island,  299-300 

Safety  devices,  86-107 ;  wireless 
telegraphy,  279-282 

St.  Louis,  the,  143 

5^  Paul,  the,  143 

Salvage:  of  vessels,  215-226;  of 
cargo,  226-229;  a  failure,  230 

Sandfly,  the,  272 

Sarah  Brough,  the,  226 

Sargasso  Sea,  the,  301 

Sault  Ste. -Marie,  docks  at,  120, 
126 

Savannah,  the,  3 

Savoie,  the,  332 

Schlick,  Dr.'Otto,  43 

Scilly  Islands,  293 

Screw  (propeller),  5,  40 

"  Scrieve-board,"  27 

Selandia,  the,  319-320 

Seneca,  the,  197-201 

Servia,  the,  140 

Shipbuilding  :  development  of 
steamship,  i-i6j  Admiralty  re- 
quirements, 9;  preliminary 
calculations  and  tests.  17-28 ; 
construction  of  vessel,  29-38; 
232-248 ;  equipment  of  modern 
liner,  72-85,   108-118 

Shipyard,  29,  36 

Sidonia,  the,   139 

wSimon,  Lieut.,  244-245 

Sirius,  the,  39,    134-135 

Slipway,  249-250 

Smith,  Capt..  of  the  Titanic,  86 

.Smith's  Dock  Co.,  313 

Snorre,  the,  186 

Snowden,  Capt.,  of  the  W Divis- 
ion,  182 

"  Soo  locks,"  126,  129-130 

"  Soo  Rapids,"  126 

"SOS"  signal,  280 

Spithead  Review  C1889),  q 

"  Stator  "  of  a  turbine,  46 

Steamless  ships,  316-326 

Steamship  routes,  154,  160; 
necessity  for,  150-153 


344 


INDEX 


Stella,  the,  295 

Stern-post,   in  shipbuilding,  34 

Stone  &  Company,  89 

Stone-Lloyd  water-tight  doors,  89 

"  Strakes,"  in  shipbuilding,  36 

Submarine  bell  and  detector,  104- 
106 

Summer  Night's  Dream,  the,  325 

Surveying,  marine,  268-271 ; 
some  adventures,  271-274 

Swan,  Hunter,  &  Wigliam  Rich- 
ardson, Ltd.,  Messrs.,  18,  48; 
and  the  Turbinia,  50;  floating 
docks,  258 ;  modernisation  of 
vessels,  305 

Sybil,  the,  235 

Tank  oil  steamer,  97 
Tank-top  plating,  34 
Telefunken  system,  277 
Template,     in    shipbuilding,     28, 

30-31 
Teutonic,  the,  9,  73  ;  Blue  Ribbon 

contest,   142 
Thermo-tank,  113 
"Tipping,"  in  launching,  5S 
Titanic    disaster,    lessons     from, 

96-98,     102,     159 
Tonnage  of  a  vessel,  37 
Tramp  fleet,  the,  203-208 ;  some 

adventures,  209-213 
Transatlantic  Times,  the,  288 
Trevilley,  the,  314-315 
Trial  trip  of  a  vessel,  66  71 
Triple  expansion  engine,  41 
Tuckey,  Commander,  264-265 
Turbine,  the,  44-47;  on  Atlantic 

liners,  47-56 
Turbinia,  the,  44-45,  50 
Tweedy,  John,  43 
Twin-screw  system,   10,  40 
Tyson,    Capt.,    of    L^S.    Hydro- 
graphical  Dcpt.,  271 

Unibria,  the,  49,  69;  Blue  Ribbon 
contest,    141-142 


United       States       Hydrographic 

Dept.,  157,   189 
United  Workshops  for  Arts  and 

Crafts,  82 
Ushant,  Cape,  296 
Utopia,  the,  217 


Vauxhall,  the,  313 
Ventilation,  113-114 
Vesta,  the,  152 
Vibration,  43-44,  77 
Vickers-Diesel  engine,  319 
Victorian,  the,  48 
Virginian,  the,  48 

Waikato,  the,  212-213 

Wallsend  Slipway  and  Engineer- 
ing Co.,  49 

Washington,  the,   136 

"Ways,"  launching,  59,  60 

Welin,  Axel,  98 

Welin  davit,  99-101 

Welin  Lower  Deck  Davit,  102 

White,  Sir  William,  10,  20 

White  Star  Line,  7-11,  139 

Wick  Bay,  the,  230 

Wiegand,  Dr.,  81-82,  328-329 

William  Mackinnon,  the,  234 

Wilson,  John,  237-243 

Wind  and  wave,  dangers  from, 
178-181 

Wing  propeller,  23 

Winifred,  the,  235 

Wireless  telegraphy,  276-289;  in 
fog,  177;  in  survey  work,  271 

Wittekind,  the,  305 

Woerman  Lino,  322 

Wolvislon,  the,   181-183 

WoodrilT,    Capt.,    264 

Wyer  G.  Sargoit,  the,   191-192 


Y.'irrow,  A.  F.,  43 
Yarrow-Schlick-Twcedy 
44 


system, 


Kicluird  Clay  iSr"  Sons,  Litniteti,  London  and  Bungay. 


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